Globalization and the Fast Fashion Boom

Introduction:

Over the past fifteen years, the global apparel industry and consumers purchase behaviour have drastically changed as the fashion cycle has become faster than ever before (Marcketti and Karpova, 2020). With the rise of globalisation increased access to information about the new fashion trends created a demand for the latest looks at a faster pace which leads to the emergence of fast fashion (Bick, et. al, 2018). Three-months production cycle was replaced by two-weeks allowing the retailers to deliver new clothing to store daily (Marcketti and Karpova, 2020); such business approach not only accelerating sales but also transformed consumption perception and behavioural norms of the western consumers (Choi, 2016). Today people purchase five times more clothing than forty years ago and over 80 billion new pieces of clothing are sold around the world every year (Thomas, 2019). However, in order to offer the consumers more for less majority of fast fashion clothing is produced overseas in developing countries with cheap labour and weak or non-existent labour laws, which allows the employers to exploit workers and hire underage labour (Bick, et. al, 2018). This study will focus on child labour, because the cycle of poverty in developing countries and labour exploitation can be broken through an early education (Murray, 2012). Despite the impressive improvement over recent years the prevalence of child labour is still very high in many parts of the world. It is estimated that, globally 168 million to 211 million children remain trapped in child labour depriving them of childhood and education (Overeem and Theuws, 2014). Many of these children work in the garment and textile industry to satisfy the growing demand for cheap clothing of the consumers in the global North (ibid). The deadly collapse of The Rana Plaza factory complex in Bangladesh which housed garment factories manufacturing apparel for the number of high street fashion retailers shed the light on the poor labour conditions faced by workers in the textile and clothing industry (Henninger, et. al, 2017). This incident sparked interest on the social impact of the fashion industry and resulted in ‘the greatest public outcries for more transparency within supply chains’ (Henninger, et. al, 2017: 2). Nevertheless, demand for clothing and shoes is still on the rise (Environmental Audit Committee, 2019) meaning that unethical production practices and child labour remains a widespread risk. This leads to question what is consumer’s perception of child labour in the fast fashion industry? This is significant because perceptions are important in understanding human’s behaviour, in this case, consumers buying behaviour, but most importantly public opinion can play a positive role in policy making (Burstein, 2003). Since fast fashion is designed to target Gen Z and younger millennial consumers (Brooks, 2019) this research aims to explore student’s perceptions of child labour within garment and textile supply chain and how the knowledge influences their buying behaviour. The research aims shall be met through primary research, specifically through semi-structured interviews. This research will aim to highlight the gap between student’s perceptions of child labour and their buying behaviour.

This dissertation shall first examine the literature on fast fashion and child labour in garment and textile industry as well as previous research around students’ perceptions of sustainability in relation to fast fashion since there is a lack of research which exclusively focuses on perceptions of child labour. It shall then go to describe the methods, which have been used to conduct this research and examine the findings. It shall then conclude by discussing the findings and the implications of the study.

Literature review

This review explores relationship between child labour, fast fashion and students buying behaviour. The literature review shall examine the meaning of fast fashion and the impact of this phenomenon on labourers in developing countries, as well as, the definition of child labour and its prevalence in garment and textile industry. Finally, the consumers' perceptions of ethical harms will be discussed along with theories explaining consumers buying behaviour. The literature demonstrates gaps in knowledge about students’ perceptions of negative impact of fast fashion on children in developing countries, the influence of their buying behaviour and ethical accountability.

1. Fast Fashion

Term fast fashion is used to describe inexpensively made and sold clothing collections that mimic latest catwalk trends or high-end labels (Fletcher 2008). However, in contrast to luxury fashion, these clothes are designed for immediate wear which encourages disposability and drives people to buy new items more frequently (Environmental Audit Committee, 2019). Therefore, the fundamental feature of the fast fashion business model is the ability to offer new affordable products every week to satisfy desires of industrialised world consumers. Some scholars have referred to clothing brands which mass-produce standardised, cheap, disposable fashion as ‘McFashion’ which recall McDonald’s fast-food chain (Joy et al., 2012; Fletcher, 2010). The fast-fashion phenomenon has significantly reshaped the clothing industry and consumers attitudes to apparel consumption. Research suggests that the availability of new fashion items at ‘pocket money’ prices has created ‘a culture of impulse buying’ (McNeill and Moore, 2015). The Environmental Audit Committee (2019) states that, the United Kingdom has the highest consumption rate of new clothing per person in Europe. According to Her Majesty’s Revenue and Customs data, in 2016 approximately 1, 130, 00 tonnes of clothing were purchased in the UK of which more than were expected to be disposed of in less than a year (Wrap.org.uk, 2017). Nevertheless, the fast fashion industry is likely to expand further as the world population is expected to research 8 billion people in the upcoming decade. Based on the Environmental Audit Committee (2019) report, global clothing consumption is expected to rise by over 60% by 2030 (Environmental Audit Committee, 2019). In order to keep up with the demand fast fashion industry has adopted unsustainable and unethical manufacturing methods. The garment industry is not only the world’s third-largest manufacturing sector but also the most labour-intensive industry (Environmental Audit Committee, 2019). The accumulation of cheap clothing is only possible due to the reduction of production cost, which has a serious impact on the workers. The majority of the garments sold in the UK are known to be manufactured in Asian countries (ibid). For decades the leading Western fashion retailers such as H&M, Zara and Asos source their clothes in developing countries because of the low labour costs (ibid.). Evidence provided by the global trade union IndustriALL, suggest that, the poverty wages and working conditions that do not meet health and safety standards became normality in global garment supply chains (Environmental Audit Committee, 2019). Due to unrealistic pricing throughout the supply chain, clothing companies are prioritising profits over human welfare and very often people are forced to work long hours that are over the legal limits, for low wages and are subjected to unsafe working conditions (ibid). While the fierce competition to reduce the cost of production keeps wages low, the apparel companies continue to generate billions of dollars profit every year (ibid).

2. Child labour

Fast fashion has created a race to the bottom, this not only has an effect on working conditions but also encourage companies to hire the cheapest source of labour - children (Moulds, 2020). Even though child labour is illegal in most countries, it is rampant through the garment supply chain (Overeem and Theuws, 2014). The International Labour Organisation (ILO) defines child labour as any work ‘that deprives the children of their childhood, their potential and their dignity, and that is harmful to physical and mental development’ (IPEC 2004: 16). However, the ILO has indicated that, not all work done by children is harmful and should be considered as child labour, such as helping parents around the home (ibid). Consequently, child work that is harmful to the health and development has been distinguished into two main categories: i) hazardous child labour and ii) the worst forms of child labour. The first, hazardous work refers to work in unsafe and unhealthy conditions that expose children to psychological abuse could result in health problems or permanent disability. The second category, the worst forms of child labour involves slavery, forced and bonded labour, forced recruitment of children for use in illicit activities and armed conflict, prostitution and any other work which by its nature or the circumstances is harmful to health, safety and morals of children. If no physical abuse involved - child labour in the clothing industry falls into the category of hazardous child labour (IPEC, 2004).

2.1 Child labour in textile and garment industry

Exploitation is at the centre of child labour dilemma with companies hiring children because they are vulnerable and easy to manipulate (Smestad, 2009). Children aged 5-17 are employed at various stages of the garment supply chain - from cotton production to stitching. The Centre for Research on Multinational Corporations (SOMO) report indicates that, child labour in the textile and garment industry is particularly notorious in India, Uzbekistan, China, Bangladesh, Egypt, Thailand and Pakistan. It has been reported that, often children as young as 14 work over 70 hours per week for 13 pence per hour to produce clothing for successful Western fast-fashion retailers (ibid) indicating that, multi- million pound retail companies run their business by taking advantage of those who live in poverty (Smestad, 2009). Through clothing supply chain children work in the fields, factories, workshops and their own homes. According to the SOMO report, in garment factories children perform difficult and tiring tasks such as ‘dyeing, sewing buttons, cutting and trimming threads, folding, moving and packing garments’ (Overeem and Theuws, 2014:1). ILO stated that inside the factory children are often exposed not only hazardous conditions but also emotional, physical and even sexual abuse (Ilo.org, 2020). National Labour Committee 2006 report revealed that, children ‘sewing clothing for Hanes, Wal-Mart, J.C. Penney, and Puma at the Harvest Rich factory in Bangladesh’ reported ‘being routinely slapped and beaten, sometimes falling down from exhaustion’ (Smestad, 2009:149). Additionally, literature review revealed that in the garment and textile industry children are often hired in preference to adults because of their delicate hands that are particularly useful in some activities that require thoroughness (Overeem and Theuws, 2014). Child labour is reportedly the most prevalent with the production of cotton because small fingers are extremely valuable tool that can transfer pollen from one plant to another without damaging the crop (Overeem and Theuws, 2014). In 2009-2010 in India over 381,000 children were found to be employed in cotton seed production, of which 169,900 reported to be less than fourteen-year-old (ibid). Children are also preferred in manufactories for detailed finishing work such as adding sequin or glitter embellishments (Trusted Clothes, 2017).

2.2 Drivers of child labour

Much of the literature has explored the reasons why child labour exists in the first place. While involvement of children in clothing production supply chain is significantly influenced by the demand for cheap and small fingered labour (Ilo.org, 2020), the true issue is that, many are unable to say no to the job in garment industry because of economic necessity (Smestad, 2009). Throughout the literature poverty is singled out as the greatest driving force behind the prevalence of child labour. According to SOMO report, in many cases, children start working in cotton production and in garment factories to supplement family income (Overeem and Theuws, 2014). Due to low wages, parents do not earn enough money to cover the basic needs of their family and therefore children are forced to contribute to the family income from a very young age (ibid). Krueger (1996) study highlighted that, the decline in child labour is associated with a higher level of economic development as it is less common for richer households to send their children to the labour market. Several empirical studies show significant link between parent’s education and non-hazardous wage work in developing countries. Sasmal and Guillen (2015) examined the relationship between poverty, education and child labour in India. The study found that lack of education due to the persistence of poverty creates a child-labour trap (Sasmal and Guillen, 2015). Sasmal and Guillen found that, children who are forced to work to supplement the family income are deprived of schooling; consequently they grow into unskilled adult labourers who earn a low wage and are again forced to send their children to work (ibid). SOMO report noted that child labour perpetuates poverty rather than helping to stop it. If there were no cheap child labourers, there would be less unemployment among adults and adult workers would have a chance to negotiate better wages (Overeem and Theuws, 2014). Social and economical vulnerability plays a major role in the exploitation of children in the garment supply chain (Smestad, 2009). Due to poverty and almost no opportunities thousands of young children in developing countries are forced to work long hours in horrific working condition for very low pay to help to support their family. Consequently, big brands and retailers use this as opportunity to hire cheap and easy to manipulate labour to increase their profits (ibid).

3. Consumer behaviour theories

To analyse peoples’ perceptions of child labour in the fast fashion industry it is vital to explore drivers behind their consumption. The meaning of consumerism varies depending on the context in which it is used. In this sense, consumerism refers to the preoccupation of society with the purchasing of material goods (Kaza, 2000). A number of theories have been proposed to understand this phenomenon. Shove and Warde (2002) separated theoretical positions into two groups: i) work that sees consumer as communicator and ii) work that understands consumer as an identity-seeker (Kennedy and Krogman, 2008).

3.1Consumption as communication

Sociologist Thorstein Veblen (1994) argued that, often consumption takes place to demonstrate one’s status in society, which he described as conspicuous consumption. According to Veblen, some individuals purchase goods not to cover their basic needs but rather to publicly display their wealth to gain recognition and respect from others. Veblen indicated that through conspicuous consumption, individuals can maintain or gain a higher social status (Kennedy and Krogman, 2008). Veblen further argued that conspicuous consumptions lead to social comparison as this type of consumers tend to display their possession to demonstrate how well off they are compared to others (Veblen, 1994). This theory is often applied to apparel consumption because individual style is one of the easiest ways for one to demonstrate his prestige and to look different from others (Kennedy and Krogman, 2008). Since one’s identity is constantly changing, every time he or she acquires new goods to match the new identity which continually drives consumerism (ibid). In short, Veblen’s general idea is that one’s desire to communicate his status in the eyes of others is a primary motivation behind consumption. Opposite to Veblen, Bourdieu (1984) argues that taste and consumption habits of individuals are not arbitrary but rather determined by their position in the social structure. In other words, the taste is related to one’s social status. Bourdieu points out that consumption involves symbols, ideas and values that separate one social group from another (Miles, 2006). Because of the social comparison though consumption Bourdieu's work has similarities to Veblen’s idea of conspicuous consumption (ibid), however, Bourdieu sees goods as material elements that individuals use as a support for interaction: ’taste it what brings together things and people that go together’ (Bourdieu 2010: 239). According to Bourdieu’s theory of taste, individuals’ consumption habits are not only shaped by social status but also by the interaction between the individual and society (Miles, 2006).

3.2 Consumption as identity-seeking

Contrary to Veblen and Bourdieu’s insight that consumption is a way of communication, other postmodern theorists argue that, the main motivation behind consumerism is search for self-identity. There exists a considerable body of literature explaining consumption as a dominant mechanism used to express individuality with western consumers being an identity-seekers ‘craving for authenticity, unity, and consistency’ (Yiannis and Lang, 2006:89). The argument that consumer’s goods play a significant role in the process of identity creation has become central to theories developed by some of the most influential sociologists (Keat, Abercrombie and Whiteley, 1994). According to Bauman no longer class or bloodline determines one’s place in society, today everyone has a responsibility to create their own personal identity (ibid). Bauman argues that, individuals build self-identity through consumption because it allows a freedom of expression: ‘for most member of contemporary society individual freedom, if available, comes in the form of consumer freedom’ (1988 as cited in Keat, Abercrombie and Whiteley, 1994: 58). Similarly, Snyder and Fromkin (1980) uniqueness theory argues that, individuals pursue self-uniqueness through purchasing consumer goods. According to the theory, consumers dislike high levels of similarity and dissimilarity and therefore they buy products that distinguish them from other consumers (Lynn and Harris, 1997). On the other hand, a number of authors, including Bauman, have pointed out that, the system that allows freedom also puts a lot of pressure on the individuals that have to construct their own selves, which often leads to an identity crisis (Yiannis and Lang, 2006). While individuals are free the obligation to choose can generate anxiety because in consumer society individuals are being judged based on their consumption-related capacities (Keat, Abercrombie and Whiteley, 1994). Bauman pointed out that, members of consumer society have to create an identity that is not only authentic but also that authenticity has to be approved by other members, therefore, they spend much time constructing and reconstructing their identities (Yiannis and Lang, 2006). In relation, Giddens suggested that, not only identify-seeking but also identity crisis drives consumerism because many members of materialistic society consumer goods to make themselves feel better (Trentmann, 2004).

3.3 Ethical consumption

Although there are many studies on consumerism the research on ethical consumption remains limited. The most popular theory used to understand consumers decision making in relation to ethical consumerism is the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), introduced by social psychologist Icek Ajzen in 1985 (Sun, 2019). This theory is based on the assumption that a person makes reasoned decision to engage in behaviour by evaluating available information. According to the TPB, a person’s opinion about specific behaviour shapes their attitude toward that behaviour, which influences their decision whether to perform the behaviour (ibid). In relation to ethical consumption, TPB argues that, if ethical product is socially approved it is more likely that a consumer will purchase it (ibid).

3.3.1 Price consciousness

Consumer’s willingness to pay is a common topic thought the literature on ethical consumption and consumer behaviour literature (Campbell, DiPietro and Remar, 2014). Some authors pointed out that consumption of ethical products not only require more effort but also ‘consumers have to be willing to pay higher prices’ (Uusitalo and Oksanen, 2004:215). It has been suggested that some consumers may not buy an item if the price is too high compared to the price offered by other sellers (Palazón and Delgado, 2009). Such buying behaviour is known as price consciousness (ibid). Price-conscious consumers tend to be unwilling to pay more for certain products and ‘focuses exclusively on paying a low price” when shopping (Lichtenstein et al., 1993 as cited in Palazón and Delgado, 2009:2). Consumerism theories suggest that some individuals buy new things in order to communicate their status in society (Veblen, 1994; Bourdieu, 1984) while others aim to express individuality (Bauman, 1988). However, despite the different motives both buying behaviours encourage regular consumerism as fashion trends change rapidly. The pressure to keep up with demand has serious consequences on people that work in garment and textile industries (Overeem and Theuws, 2014). To provide cheap items retailers and brands cut production expenses which not only affects working conditions but also creates demand for cheap labour (ibid). Consequently, children are employed in the garment and textile industries to produce clothing for high street retailers to satisfy hungry consumers in the west (ibid). Nevertheless, ethical consumerism is not something many cares about. According to the theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1985), people tend to purchase only those ethically produced items that are socially approved (Sun, 2019).

4. Consumers attitudes

4.1 The gap between ethical intentions and ethical actions

Most acts of consumption today involve some measure of environmental or human abuse (Kaza, 2000). As discussed, while consumerism allows freedom it fails to inform that this freedom comes at the expenses of labourers working at various stages of the supply chain. Even though labour abuses are reported in a number of industries, clothing manufacturing is at the centre of discussions in relation to fair trade, union wages and consumer responsibility (Smestad, 2009). Some authors believe that consumer’s class is the one to be held responsible for the harmful impacts caused by the production and consumption of goods (Kaza, 2000). However, others argue that very often consumers are not aware of the production process behind the products they buy (ibid). Schaiberg (1997) argued that, in many cases information about the manufacturing process, especially when it involves abusive labour, is not accessible for a consumer (Kaza, 2000). However, recent academics literature suggest that global ‘environmental justice’ movements and fair labour movements raised awareness among consumers regarding the social and environmental harms of fashion consumption (Dissanayake, Perera and Wanniarachchi, 2017). While some argue that these movements encouraged consumers to demand for ethically produced and environmentally safe products (ibid), others suggested that, consumers concerns regarding social sustainability do not necessarily translate to their purchase behaviour (Bray, Johns and Kilburn, 2010). Marketing research on consumer’s perception of sustainability and ethics revealed a discrepancy between people’s attitudes and their fashion purchasing. McNeill and Moore (2015) study on 21-25-year-old consumers in New Zealand revealed that the majority of participants, who were familiar with the negative side of fast fashion, including environmental harm and sweatshop labour in manufacturing countries, do not think about these issues in relation to their buying behaviour. Consumers stated that knowledge of sweatshop labour does not influence their decision to buy fast fashion clothes. However, some respondent admitted not being proud of their buying behaviour (ibid). Research also found that even those who voiced strong levels of concern prioritise desire for fast fashion over sustainability. McNeill and Moore described this as the avoidance of personal sacrifice (ibid). Similar findings were obtained by Kim et. al., (2013), study on motivational drivers of fast fashion avoidance among female consumers in Korea. The research suggested that the poor quality of fast fashion apparel work as stronger deterrents than ethical concerns (Kim, Jung Choo and Yoon, 2013).

4.2 Students perceptions

Research on student’s perceptions of sustainability revealed similar findings: Joy et al., (2012) comparative study on fashion consumption of students and recent graduates from Canada and Hong Kong suggest that, sustainable fashion is not a priority for young people. Students from both countries expressed concerns regarding the environmental and social impact of fast fashion purchasing; however, they do not consider these issues in relation to their consumption of clothing (ibid). In addition, research has provided evidence that while students do not act sustainably when it comes to fashion, they support the idea of sustainability when it comes to food, recycling and occasionally cosmetics in order to save environment (ibid). Therefore, Joy et al., pointed out that young people tend to separate fashion from sustainability (ibid). However, while students from both countries seem to have a good understanding about environmental issues caused by fast fashion production only six out of thirty participants talked about miss-treatment of workers in manufacturing industry (ibid). This indicated the need to explore student’s perceptions of social issues exclusively. Therefore, this study will focus on students’ perceptions of child labour in fast fashion industry and their understanding about social sustainability. Moreover, literature suggests that often millennial with low incomes are forced to buy fast fashion clothes because sustainable clothing items are more expensive (Sorensen et. al., 2019). However, contrary to this argument Canadian and Chinese students identified lack of style as the main factor that stops them from buying eco-fashion (Joy et al., 2012). Similarly, Pookulangara and Shephard (2013) research on students perception on slow fashion in the UK, found that, young consumers are not willing to spend more money clothes that are not recognised as ‘trendy’. Su and Chang (2018) study on college student’s perceptions of fast fashion brands and the factors contributing to their brand loyalty indicated that, fast fashion apparel provides students with the best value. Many young consumers identified buying fast fashion because they can find ‘trendy’ clothes with many options to choose from for a very affordable price even though items are not the best quality (ibid). Su and Chang concluded that when consumers recognise brand having a good value they tend to stay loyal to the brand (ibid). Therefore, because fast fashion can offer both trendy and cheap, students are loyal consumers of these brands. The current literature is limited in what it explores. The majority of the literature focuses on perceptions of environmental harms, ethical consumerism, and eco-fashion but only very limited information is available about consumers awareness about sweatshops labour and in particular child labour. Moreover, although research has revealed that consumers are aware to a certain level about negative side of fast fashion apparel consumption, no study to date has exclusively focused on young consumer’s perception of child labour in the garment industry. To fill this literature gap, this research will focus on student’s perceptions of children involvement in fast fashion clothing production.

Aims and hypothesis

Taking into consideration the literature discussed, the purpose of this study is to explore the views of undergraduate students regarding child labour in the fast-fashion supply chain. Previous research has been conducted from the marketing perspective; therefore, the subject of child labour is not the main focus of analysis. Since no research has exclusively focused on the influence of unethical production practices to students buying behaviour, this research has two aims:

To explore students understanding about the nature and extent of the child labour phenomenon in the clothing supply chain

To investigate what influences their decision to choose or to avoid fast fashion brands.

Furthermore, based on the consumerism theories and theory of planned behaviour three competing hypotheses has been developed:

Hypothesis 1: Students consume clothes to build self-identity

Hypothesis 2: Students consume clothes to communicate their status in society

Hypothesis 3: Knowledge about child labour in fast fashion supply chains shapes students attitude towards ethical fashion consumption.

Methodology

Philosophy of methodology

A qualitative research method was chosen because of the research aim to explore student’s perceptions of child labour in the fast-fashion supply chain. Qualitative research does not seek to asses a predetermined hypothesis but rather to develop a better understanding of the phenomenon (Seale, 2004). In this study interview were chosen to ensure that that rich personal data could be obtained. In contrast to quantitative research, there are no fixed answers, which allow participants to respond to questions in their own words and therefore explore the topic in greater depth (ibid). Moreover, qualitative interviews can help in understanding why people act in a certain way by exploring ‘the meaning and significance they give to their actions’ (Seale, 2004:257). When studying people qualitatively, we get to understand the social world from the participants' point of view (Matthews and Ross, 2010). Qualitative research allows us to explore ‘the inner life of a person’ (Burges as cited in Taylor et. al., 2015:9) through the personal experiences, perspectives and understandings revealed. In this case, to learn about extent of students’ knowledge about unethical production practices of fast fashion brands and to explore their understanding on how consumption of fast fashion apparel contributes to child labour in developing countries. As well as, to test whether the knowledge about social sustainability influence participants buying behaviour. Research questions were further examined through the use of thematic analysis. According to Braun and Clarke (2006) thematic analysis is an effective method for exploring different perspectives, looking for links within the data, underlining similarities and differences within and between cases and producing unanticipated insights (Nowell et. al., 2017). In contrast to other qualitative methodologies, thematic analysis is not committed to a particular theoretical perspective and therefore it is one of the most flexible methods of data analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). This research method allowed the researcher to learn about students understanding and knowledge on the child labour phenomenon and to explore the meaning attached to the consumption of clothes and material items purchased while remaining grounded in the raw data (Matthews and Ross, 2010). It is important to note that, some argue that thematic analysis should not be considered as a separate method. However, rigorous thematic analysis can generate trustworthy data-driven findings (Nowell et. al., 2017). The measures are taken to ensure trustworthiness of the research findings that are described further below. In addition, three competing hypotheses regarding student buying behaviour were tested via data analysis.

Research sample and data source:

Participants involved in this study were students currently enrolled in an undergraduate programme at the University of Westminster. Participants were recruited using non-probability sampling strategy because the sampling frame was not necessary for this research (May, 2011). Due to limited time and resources, a student’s sample was selected based on easy accessibility and willingness to participate (Etikan, 2016). The researcher contacted nine students of University of Westminster that were recommended by other students and met the criteria: they were under the age of 25, doing an undergraduate programme and supporting themselves financially. Eight out of nine students agreed to participate in an interview. Although a small convenience sample is not representative of the population, it ‘is appropriate for theory testing purposes' (Park and Sullivan, 2009:187). In contrast to quantitative research, the generalisation of results to the whole population is not the goal in qualitative research (Dawson, 2009). The research aim, which was to interview a small sample of UoW student in order to gain a better understanding of their perceptions on the topic of child labour, was successfully accomplished using the convenience sampling method.

Data collection methods

In order to explore participant’s thoughts but also to acquire some specific information, a semi-structured interview approach was chosen as a data collection method (Dawson, 2009). In this type of interview researcher’s use guiding questions to ensure continuity but do not strictly follow a set list of questions and rather let conversation to flow depending on the participant’s responses (ibid). Semi-structured interviews give participants more room to explore topics and issues that they feel are important (Dawson, 2009) which allows concepts and theories to emerge out of the data (Bryman, 2016). Semi-Structured interviews allowed researcher not only to explore university students' understanding on unethical production practices and their perceptions on child labour in fast fashion supply chain but also to examine competing hypothesis testing their buying behaviour. The interview guide consisted of twelve open-ended questions and minimal prompt questions informed by previous reading. Questions were based on three topics: fast fashion, social sustainability and child labour. At the beginning of the interview, participants were reminded of the purpose of the study, protection of anonymity and confidentially and their right to withdraw from an interview at any time (Dawson, 2009). The interviews began with background questions, which Adams (2015) suggested can help to start a comfortable chat and build relationship between interviewer and respondent. The researcher started with a directly relevant but straightforward question ‘What do you understand by the term ‘fast fashion’? and gradually moved to more controversial questions leaving sensitive questions toward the end (Adams, 2015). Mostly open-ended questions were asked encouraging participant to talk freely, when necessary predetermined questions were supplemented by follow-up and probing questions to elicit detailed responses from participants (ibid). The interviews were conducted in the University of Westminster campus and none were administrated off of the university grounds. Interviews took place over the first two weeks of March 2020. Four interviews were conducted in the Marylebone campus library; three in Regent campus library; and one interview took place in a classroom. With participant agreement all interviews were audio-recorded. It was chosen to record interviews so that research could fully focus on interaction with participants rather than on writing down what participants say. Note-taking can make it difficult for inexperienced researchers not only to fully engage in conversation with interviewee but also to maintain eye contact which is vital to establishing rapport (Dawson, 2009). Interviews varied in length between 15-30 minutes. Interview recordings were transcribed into the word document together with the summary notes. In line with the University’s Research Data Management Policy interview recordings will be deleted before leaving the University or otherwise registered with the Virtual Research Environment to protect participants and data.

Ethics

Ethical considerations are necessary to ensure that research participants are protected from any possible risks (Dawson, 2009). During an interview people disclose personal information, therefore, it is important to treat participants and information supplied with honesty and respect (ibid). For ensuring safety of participants and researcher, before conducting research ethical approval was granted by research supervisor Sally Atkinson-Sheppard based on the guidelines of the University Research Ethics Committee. Moreover, participants were provided with an information sheet and consent form and were given an opportunity to ask questions. Informed consent contained information about participants’ right to skip uncomfortable questions if needed and the right to withdraw from the interview at any point without providing an explanation (ibid). In addition, the researcher has an ethical responsibility to ensure confidentiality and anonymity (ibid). In order to guarantee the confidentiality of data and participants anonymity all the interview recordings were named by codes and stored on a computer database accessible by password only. Participants were also provided with the dissertation supervisor’s name and email address in case of any issues or questions.

Data analysis methods

In qualitative research data analysis significantly relies on the interpretation of the researcher (Matthews and Ross, 2010). Qualitative research data is non-numerical and unstructured therefore the analysis of the data is based on interpreting and understanding the words of the respondents (ibid). Data analysis was conducted using thematic analysis. Thematic analysis occurred in three phases: indexing, coding and charting. First, interview transcripts were reviewed several times to familiarise with the raw data (Matthews and Ross, 2010). The researcher began to organise the data using indexing system to highlight 'all the different topics and types of data’ significant to the study (Matthews and Ross, 2010:332). In addition, indexing the researcher identified common themes within interviews, which provided a starting point to coding (ibid). Coding is the key process in separating, compiling, and organising data (Bryman, 2016). During the coding process, the researcher went line-by-line through the transcripts assigning codes to words and specific characteristics within the text allowing categories and themes to emerge from the data (Dawson, 2009). Then, the codes were examined to identify the patterns across the different interviews and sorted into useful themes and sub-themes. For reducing the number of categories, smaller similar categories were joint into broader categories; issues unrelated to the research question were removed. Once themes were generated they were reviewed to ensure that data fits into themes and those themes represent the meaning of data. Lastly, themes were named and defined accordingly. In the charting phase, a table was created to explore the themes developed and compare what different participants are saying about the same topic or issue (Matthews and Ross, 2010). In order to test hypotheses one section of the table included reasons why students buy clothing and how knowledge about unethical production practices influence their buying behaviour. Before writing up process, transcripts were re-read alongside the list of categories. Some amendments were made to ensure that all aspects of the interview are covered and that the definitions of codes clearly describe data included (Matthews and Ross, 2010). During the writing-up process researcher first presented findings supplemented by verbal examples and then linked the findings to the literature and theories.

Issues of trustworthiness

The trustworthiness of a qualitative researcher is often questioned because of the relatively unstructured nature of data analysis (Cao, 2007). Contrary to quantitative research that use statistical tests to analyse the data, in quantitative research “the researcher is the instrument" (Patton, 2001 as cited in Golafshani, 2003: 600), therefore, the validity and reliability of study findings largely depend on the skills and effort of the researcher (Golafshani, 2003). In order to increase the trustworthiness of research findings, the researcher used the criteria proposed by Lincoln and Guba (1985). The researcher used triangulation of sources to enchase the credibility (equivalent to internal validity in quantitative research); students from different courses were employed so that different viewpoints could be compared (Cao, 2007). To establish dependability (equivalent to reliability in quantitative research), the researcher provided a rich description of the study methods (ibid). Moreover, the researcher provided a thorough description of the participants and the research process enabling readers to make an informed decision about transferability (equal to generalisability in quantitative research) (ibid). Lastly, to avoid personal biases and achieve conformability (known as objectivity in quantitative research) the researcher maintained a reflective journal to record ‘presuppositions, choices, experiences, and actions during the research process” (Mruck & Breuer, 2003 as cited in Ortlipp, 2008:695) which also increased dependability of the findings (Cao, 2007).

Limitations and delimitations

As with the majority of studies, the design of the current research is subject to limitations. First, this study is based on interviews with only 8 participants. Even though the ability to generalise results to a wider population is not the goal of qualitative research (Dawson, 2009), the researcher still needs to use an adequate sample size to conduct meaningful analyses and produce reliable results (Hagaman and Wutich, 2016). It has been suggested that, the researcher should conduct interviews until no new significant themes emerge, which is known as ‘thematic saturation’ (Hagaman and Wutich, 2016). While there is no agreed number of interviews required to reach data saturation, according to Francis and colleagues (2010), the researcher should interview at least 10 participants before checking for saturation (ibid). Therefore, if a larger sample size was employed potentially different or additional themes could have been produced. Another limitation of this study is related to the choice of qualitative research method. The thematic analysis does not have many procedures and therefore ‘it offers a more accessible form of analyses for a researcher with little or no prior experience (Nowell, et. al., 2017). However, in contrast to other methods of data analysis, there is not much literature on how to produce a rigorous thematic analysis which can have an effect on the validity and reliability of research findings (ibid). In addition, due to the flexibility of thematic analysis themes derived from the research data might lack coherence (ibid). It is also important to acknowledge that the researcher is a student herself, which increase the possibility of both participant and researcher bias. Even though the researcher tried to maintain neutrality during interviews and data analysis there is no way to assure that analysis is entirely objective. In qualitative research, there is no formula to transform data into findings meaning that, the findings are unique to each researcher (Patton, 2009). The researcher has to explore the participants’ social world and get to know their story thought their framework (Banister et al., 2012). However, in this study researcher’s social world is similar to one of the participants as she is also a student which can lead to the loss of objectivity (ibid).

Findings and analysis

Theme 1: Buying behaviour

Influential aspects

The reasons why students feel the need to purchase new clothing were discussed; the factors influencing consumption varied across participants. The most repetitively reported answer was that new clothes give immense personal satisfaction. For example, as expressed by Participant 4 ‘I always buy clothes that I like because they make me feel good’. Participant 5 also reported buying new clothes to improve emotional state ‘if you having a bad day or bad time when you buy something new it can make you feel better, just because you look good’, which confirms Giddens argument that, for members of materialistic society, consumption has therapeutic value (Trentmann, 2004). In addition, Participant 1 pointed out that new clothes help to boost self-confidence but also mentioned personally not to care about the look: ‘I think it gives you a boost of confidence […] but usually, I’m not very bothered how I look’. Therefore, it is possible that clothing consumption makes students feel good not only because they like to buy new clothes, but also because they believe that new clothes make them look good in the eyes of others. This can be linked to Veblen’s (date) theory of conspicuous consumption and that consumers seek to gain recognition in society through the consumption of goods. However, none of the students in this study expressed concerns about their status in society and some also reported to buy the same or similar clothes as their friends. This contradicts the theory of conspicuous consumption because while students seek recognition in society they are not concerned about being better than others (Kennedy and Krogman, 2008). The rest of the participants, two out of eight reported buying new clothes in order to express themselves. Both participants said believing that clothes help to represent who they are or wish to be, ‘clothing and your appearance have a lot to do with the expression of which you are. You can send a message, not only about who you are but who you want to be’. In addition, Participant 8 reported the need to stand out of the crowd because it is hard to be noticed in a big city like London and that clothing helps to achieve that. Thereby, their buying behaviour is supportive of Bauman’s idea that people consume to create a personal identity (Keat, et.al., 1994).

Reduction in consumption

Reduction of fast fashion clothing consumption was a theme that spontaneously emerged throughout interviews as respondents expressed their concerns about harmful production practices and overconsumption. When asked to describe the meaning of fats fashion every single participant identified low price as the main feature of fats fashion and six out of eight participants made a connection between low price and unethical production practices. The majority of students noted that fast fashion clothing manufactories are often based in developing countries and raised the issue of unsafe working conditions, long hours, unfair wages and child labour. Participant 8 emphasised that brands ‘can’t sell things for such a low price without using cheap labour and having horrible working conditions […] because they wouldn’t make any profit’. While all students reported to be aware of the fact that child labour is common within the fast-fashion supply chain, the level of knowledge varied among participants. However, while all eight participants reported being more conscious of clothing consumption and trying to avoid fast fashion brands, unethical production practises was not the major factor contributing to the reduction of consumption. Even though the students identified child labour as one of the reasons influencing changes in their buying behaviour, the data demonstrated that environmental impact was the main concern and motive behind the reduction. Participant 5 explained that ‘I feel like right now there is kind of huge thing going on everywhere regarding environmental issues. Ethical issues would be second in terms of importance right now’. Participant 8 expressed very similar opinion and noted that ‘Before I cared more about ethical reasons but now, we are talking so much about the environment and are getting so much awareness from everywhere: people like Greta Thunberg and generally activism. We know now that we need to take care of our planet.’ Therefore, environmental harms seem to have a bigger impact on changes in participants buying behaviour rather than child labour due to climate activism.

Barriers to ethical buying

The participants reported consuming less clothing than few years ago, however, they still admitted purchasing new piece of clothing from fast fashion brand at least every three months, which brought up the discussion of ethically produced clothing. Throughout the interviews students identified three main reasons that stop them to quit fast fashion: price, convenience and knowledge on ethical brands. Even seven out of eight participants emphasised that ethically produced clothing is more expensive in comparison to fast fashion clothing, and admitted that, despite the harms often their buying behaviour is influenced by a lower price. For example, Participant 7 said ‘I do invest in some pieces that are produced ethically but they are much more expensive to what I would get from the fast-fashion brand.’ However, only three out of eight participants mentioned the behaviour of buying cheap clothes because of the limited finances as a student. Participant 5 noted that ’…as a student, you don’t have loads of money. This is something I want to improve because I don’t want to support this kind of industry. But I do it today as my financial issues are stepping in-between’. In contrast for other participants, low price clothing means that they can consume spontaneously and are able to dispose of unwanted items without wasting a lot of money. Participant 3 stated that: ‘if you are in a rush and need something for this particular moment you are more likely to buy something that is really cheap, something that you don’t even have to try on because you might not use it ever again’. Therefore, the majority of the students in this study choose fast fashion brands because they offer cheap and trendy clothes which confirm Su and Chang (2018) study found that, fast fashion brands offer young consumers the best value. Other students also pointed out that ethical purchase behaviour requires effort and is time-consuming. Participants stressed that, there are less eco-fashion stores in the main malls and high streets in comparison to fast fashion shops, which makes it difficult to stay sustainable. In addition, some participants admitted not knowing about ethical brands; ‘to be honest, I don’t have enough knowledge about which brands sell ethically-made clothing and which don’t’, said Participant 8. Therefore, a lack of knowledge of ethical brands is one more barrier to sustainable behaviour. In summary, while students are concerned with the negative impact of fast fashion, purchasing clothes from ethical brands do not seem to be an option. Moreover, while many identified price as the main barrier, later in the interview three students mentioned to be willing to pay more if fashion brands would ensure that clothes are produced in an ethical way. This suggests that, some students are unwilling to pay more for clothes from ethical brands but are willing to pay more for fast fashion clothes produced in an ethical way. These findings can be linked to Pookulangara and Shephard’s (2013) study which indicated that, young consumers are not interested in paying more for clothing that is not fashionable.

Theme 2: Perceptions of child labour

Poverty

All the students interviewed in this study associated child labour phenomenon with poor countries in the global South such as Bangladesh, Myanmar, India and Vietnam. Many brought out the issue of parents not earning enough money to support their family and therefore children being forced to contribute to family income from a young age. Throughout the number of interview students referred to this issue as having no choice for both parents and children. Participant 8 stated that ‘this issue is always connected to very poor countries where the living conditions are bad. That is probably the main reason why parents put their kids in this position […]. They probably don’t question it; as soon as their child can be useful they send him/her to work because otherwise, they can’t survive. Doing this is probably better than dying of starvation’. Students acknowledge the fact that, while child labour is illegal and dangerous due to poverty, many people in developing countries do not have the same opportunities as people in the global North. Moreover, a number of participants noted that child labour is rooted in a generational cycle of poverty. Participant 6 stated that ‘most likely their parents were working as kids themselves to help their own parents, so it is normal for them to send their kids to work too’. Many students believe that poor people in developing countries consider child labour as a normal part of life and a way to survive rather than an issue. Nevertheless, students reported to believe that governments should do more to support children from low-income families, ‘there is not enough investment in children having a safe childhood outside of labour’, said Participant 7. Participant 3 also highlighted that in most developing countries ‘there are no regulations and a lot of corruption. […] Even if the government knows, officials don’t do anything to solve this problem’. Students noted that government lack of regulation allows the biggest fast-fashion retailers in the world to take advantage of poor people in developing countries. Many students have also stressed that children are not being treated fairly at work. Participant 1 pointed out that, since children are unskilled labourers, they work for very little pay or in some cases just to ‘get a meal at the end of the day’. However, some had a different opinion, Participant 2 pointed out that while in garment and textile industries children are forced to work long hours for low pay, there are more dangerous places to work, such as coal mining industry. Participant 2 is one of two students who reported to learn about child labour during the studies at the university.

In summary, students have demonstrated a good understanding about an underlying issue of child labour in developing countries and how the largest retailers in the world use this as an opportunity to increase their profits by placing manufactories in developing countries. In addition, two participants bought up the issue of hiring children in preference to adults ‘because smaller body structure is beneficial for some work, such as small fingers’. This argument is in accordance with the literature review; as discussed employees in particular prefer children in the cotton-farming due to their delicate hands (Overeem and Theuws, 2014).

Prohibition of child labour

Participants’ responses in the previous section illustrated that they most concerned with children in developing countries not having a choice and being forced to work which also reflected their views on the prohibition of child labour. While all students in this study expressed a strong opinion about forced labour and believed that in no case children should be forced to work, only one participant reported believing that, child labour in the garment and textile industry should be completely forbidden. Participant 8 stated that ‘People are dying because of us always wanting cheap things to buy. It’s just not fair. Child labour in the clothing industry should be definitely prohibited because all of us can live without buying cheap clothes’. However, even seven out of eight participants believe that child labour should be regulated rather than prohibited. Participant 1 stated ‘I don’t agree that no children should be allowed to work, there are unique situations. I think it really depends on the age of children and their choice. Also, it depends on what they do in the factory’. Participant 6 reflected on the reasons why children need to work and noted that ‘some families won’t survive if the kids won’t work, therefore it is a very difficult question. I want to say yes it should be prohibited, but I know that it is more complex than that’. Students’ attitudes towards the prohibition of child labour are in line with Omokhodion and Uchendu (2010) study findings that because of extreme poverty contribution to family income from a young age are often critical to children’s survival. A great majority of students in this study believe that because of the economic situation in developing countries governments’ should impose age restriction rather than banning child labour completely. Students stated that at the age of 15-16 children should be allowed to decide themselves whether they want to work because everyone should have a right to make their own decision. The participants believed that older children who want to support their family should be allowed to do so after school and during the weekends, however, ‘children that are younger should be investing time in education’ (Participant 7). However, none of the participants brought up the issue of dangerous working conditions, physical and or verbal abuse that children are exposed to (Ilo.org, 2020).

Social Responsibility

The majority of students in this study reported a belief that consumers are responsible for allowing and supporting child labour in the fast fashion clothing industry. Students noted that while governments and brands should ensure that the workplaces and suppliers are free from child labour, consumers buying behaviour controls the fashion industry. As emphasised by Participant 7 ‘we purchase items from brands and increase their profits and therefore further allow exploiting workers within the industry. Therefore, we are the ones who can make an impact’. Participant 3 also pointed out that ‘if everyone would stop purchasing clothes from Primark, H&M and all other fast fashion brands, they would shut down which would greatly contribute to the reduction of child labour’. However, while students believe that consumer should act differently and stop buying fast fashion clothes, such believes contradict their own behaviour. All eight participants reported feeling bad and guilty for purchasing clothes that were potentially made by child labourers but admitted not to think about these issues on a daily basis or when purchasing items from the fast-fashion brand. Participant 2 stated that ’when we talk about it now it feels horrible. But I’m afraid it’s not something that I think about often which I wish it was different. I think usually I’m trying to justify my unethical buying behaviour by convincing myself that I do not do this often and now I’m buying just because I really need it.’ Therefore, students seem to exclude themselves from the idea of social responsibility, despite their viewpoint that consumers are responsible for child labour in the fast fashion industry and should stop purchasing fast fashion clothing.

Theme 3: Awareness

Public awareness

Four out of eight participants reported believing that there is not enough awareness about child labour in the fast fashion industry. Throughout the interview these participants stressed that ‘social awareness is the solution’ to resolve the issue of underage labour in the clothing production industry. Participant 4 stated that, ’we need way stronger advertising about child labour related problems, people might be more influenced and try to avoid it’. Participant 8 compared child labour to climate activism and stated that 'Now everything is about the environment nobody is talking about child labour […]. There should be an equal balance of what you see in the news. Child labour is definitely a thing that should be more talked about’. Participant 8 also pointed out that, environmental activism is a trend and it attracted many people because ‘some people feel like they have to care to fit in’. According to this student, it is not trendy to fight for the prohibition of child labour therefore there are not many people fighting for it, ’no one made it a trend. There is no Greta Thunberg for child labour. There is not much awareness, there is no one big person caring about this issue and spreading a word around the globe’. Contrary, the other four participants believe that there is enough awareness about the issue of fast fashion brands using child labour; however, many people do not care enough to bring the change. Throughout the interview many students talked about people spreading awareness on the social media platforms, however, Participant 5 noted that while posts on social media ‘create awareness […] I don’t know if it actually stops people from buying stuff’. Participant 6 also pointed out that ‘people choose what they want to read’. Participant 7 had a slightly different opinion and stated that people are aware of the issues and most care, but they are not willing to change their behaviour if it affects them personally, ‘as much as I know a lot of people think but they do not fully care. Same people care to an extent that wallet allows them to’.

Transparency

In addition, all eight students pointed out the need for brands to be more transparent about their manufacturing processes. Participants pointed out that similar to some cosmetic brands, fast fashion brands should provide information on where and how materials are sourced and who was involved in manufacturing. According to students, consumers have a right to know if child labour was potentially involved. The majority of participants believe that, transparency can help to reduce consumption of fast fashion clothing, because people would feel responsible for their actions. Two students, Participant 2 and Participant 4 also noted that not only brands should provide information on their websites but also should label the clothes, ’Maybe there should be a way for the brand to track if back where the items are coming from and they should label their clothing accordingly. I think a lot of people would stop buying if it says on the label that the item was potentially produced by a child’ said Participant 4. Although responses regarding public awareness varied, all participants agreed that, there is not enough transparency from the brands' side, which would result in a reduction of fast fashion consumption and therefore lower numbers of working children in developing countries. At the end of the interview, participants were asked if they would buy an item if they knew that child labour was involved in the production. Only two participants reflected their current buying behaviour, ‘well I know already that child labour is involved and still buy. But yes, if sales assistance would say something before I pay for an item, most likely I wouldn't buy it', said Participant 5. Participant 6 similarly explained that ‘if I’m in the shop and somebody would tell me that this particular item was made by a child that would discourage me from purchasing it. But on a regular day, I don’t think it’s something that you think about which a shame is’. Interestingly, even six out of eight participants were categorical and stated that they would not purchase that item. Since all students reported to have relatively good knowledge about the prevalence of child labour in the fast fashion industry, there is a gap between ethical intentions and ethical buying behaviour of students.

Research limitations and Implications

Throughout the process, the researcher did come across certain limitations that may have an impact on the quality of the findings. Firstly, the sample used was relatively small and consisted of students from one university only, thus generalisability to the wider population is restricted. Even though in qualitative research it is not the goal to generalise the results, a more widespread study that includes students from different universities would have provided the research with a more comprehensive view. Secondly, participants were selected using convenience sampling technique, which can lead to over-representation of a certain group of people that share the same values. For reducing this limitation, the researcher employed students that study different subjects so that people with different characteristics would be included. Thirdly, three participants were non-native English speakers. While they were fluent in English, there is a chance that if the interview was conducted in their mother language more authentic answers could have been obtained. Despite these limitations, this study provides insight into the shopping behaviour of young consumers and their attitude towards unethical production practices of fast fashion companies. This is important because child labour is a widespread problem that requires a joint effort to combat it (Global Child Forum, 2017). The findings of this study highlighted that, knowledge about child labour in the garment and textile industry does not discourage students from purchasing fast fashion apparel. The results of this study can be utilised to educate the consumers about the negative social impacts that fast fashion has on producing countries and how their purchase choice contributes to the issue of child labour, so they could make an informed purchase decision. Moreover, fats fashion companies may use this thesis as an insight on how to run a sustainable and ethical business whilst attracting young customers and generating profits. The present findings also point to potential policy implications in relation to the supply chain transparency and raw material traceability. While Modern Slavery Act 2015 requires all the high street retailers to publish an annual report detailing the steps that the company has taken to eradicate modern slavery in their business supply chain, currently government does not monitor the legitimacy of the stamens (Home Office, 2020). Government enforcement is required to ensure companies comply with the report. In addition, consumers have a right to know about the item production and sourcing of materials, therefore, this information should be easy assessable to the public.

Conclusion

The main goal of this research was to address the gap in the area of consumers perceptions’ of child labour in the fast fashion industry, specifically young consumers since they are the main target of fats fashion retailers (Brooks, 2019). The research questions were addressed and the study found that student’s attitudes regarding unethical production practices of fast fashion brands do not reflect their purchase behaviour. Throughout the interview, students expressed strong concerns regarding exploitation of child labour in the countries with low labour standards (Bick, et. al, 2018) and it had an overall negative opinion about the fast fashion industry. However, despite the concerns and negative attitude all students reported still purchasing fast fashion apparel. In addition, majority of students hold the view that while child labour in garment and textile industry is dangerous and harmful it should not be completely prohibited. Students believe that, older children should be allowed to work because contribution to the family income is often vital to their survival. Overall students’ responses revealed that while they are becoming more conscious about apparel consumption and shop less, the change in their buying behaviour is mostly motivated by the industry’s detrimental effect on the environment, which supports the previous research of Joy et al., (2012). Students explained that, there is strong social pressure to protect the environment, however, not many spread awareness about unethical production practices which leaves child labour a ‘second-order’ concern. The general consensus, regarding what would motivate students to quit fats fashion, was the brands' transparency and increase in awareness about labour exploitation. Future research should consider conducting comparative research to examine whether perceptions of child labour in the fast fashion industry vary among students from different countries. This would provide insight weather in some countries young consumers are more educated about unethical productions practices than in others and what are potential reasons for that. A further study may also explore students’ knowledge about ethical brands since lack of knowledge about brands that sell ethically produced clothing emerged as one of the barriers to ethical buying behaviour.