Criminal And Terrorist Behaviour

Introduction

Globalisation is one of the most important phenomena of the Twenty First century. This may be attributed to the development of Internet, aviation, shipping, and markets, all of which have aided the development of globalisation. This essay will discuss the impact of globalisation on criminal and terrorist behaviour. The essay first discusses the meaning and significance of globalisation and then proceeds to discuss the ways in which globalisation impacts criminal and terrorist activity.

Globalisation is not an easy concept to define as it is complex and multilayered. There are many contexts in which globalisation is usually defined, which makes it difficult to define globalisation in simplistic and unidimensional terms. Kellner (1998) has written that it is hard to define globalisation in a way that can provide universal values in one single definition because of the different contexts that globalisation can be related to (Kellner, 1998). An early but still relevant definition of globalisation is that it is a phenomenon wherein “local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa” (Giddens, 1990, p.64). This definition is still relevant because it is able to describe the way in which events in one locale impact locales situated elsewhere, in a way that is even more potent because of the ubiquity of Internet, and the ease of travel and communication. Recently, globalisation has been defined as a complex range of processes that are influenced by political and economic factors (Stiglitz, 2015). This is also a relevant definition to the present essay, although it does not define what those processes are that are influenced by politics and economic events. A more clarifying definition is as follows:

“Globalisation is a multi-faceted phenomenon, and each facet may have different effects on employment, varying by country, time, industry, policies and the like. It comes as a part of large array of economic, technical, social, legal and policy changes, each with interactions and feedbacks, making is difficult to separate the effects of globalisation” (Lall, 2002, p. 2).

This definition is also relevant for providing a context to this essay as it shows how the multi-faceted phenomenon of globalisation is leading to the ordering and structuring of commercial relations around the world, which have effects on different countries in different contexts. One of the effects, that the definition does not specifically point out, but which may be inferred, is that of increasing criminal activity which is spread across borders. In a similar vein, the definition of globalisation by the OECD (2001) is relevant to showing the contexts of globalisation and criminal activity:

“The globalisation of industry is reflected in the evolving pattern of cross-border business activities involving international investment, transnational production and related trade, technology transfer and sourcing and complex cross-border networking for product development, production, sourcing and marketing” (OECD, 2001, p. 13).

The definition by OECD (2001) has specific implications for cross border crime as this essay will uncover in the coming sections. Cross border criminal activity and terror activities are facilitated by the networks that are in some way similar to or related to the commercial networks that are established to facilitate cross border trade and commerce. Therefore, the globalisation of industry, which is, the transnational trade and commercial activity facilitated through global networks, have significant implications for the growth in crime as well as terror networks. One may note that economic globalisation has specific ramifications for the growth of cross border criminal activity. This is because economic globalisation has led to a growth in cross border trade of commodities and services, flow of international capital and spread of technologies, which facilitate trade and commerce (Shangquan, 2000). The same networks also lead to the facilitation of cross border or transnational crime and terrorism. Therefore, globalisation has significant impact on the growth of criminal networks, including networks that facilitate terrorist acts and behaviour.

Links between Globalisation and Crime

There are links between globalisation and criminal and terror activity, as this section of the essay will discuss at some length. Different studies have pointed to this link in different contexts. For instance, globalisation can have specific links to growth in police corruption as one study as shown (Buttle, Graham Davies, & Meliala, 2016). There is a plethora of studies that highlight the link between globalisation and corporate crimes and corruption (Bratsis, 2003; Dörrenbächer & Geppert, 2011; Barak, 2015). The link between globalisation and corporate crimes will form the major part of the discussion in this section. Studies have also shown a link between globalisaiton and human trafficking (Pati, 2011).

Another area where a link between globalisation and crime is seen is in the context of sports crimes. Globalisation has a decided impact on increase in sports related crimes around the world. The growth of multinational criminal syndicates is one reason why there is increased crime in sports (Forrest,, 2013). Multinational crime syndicates are increasingly manipulating international sporting events, some of which are the major sporting events, and the growing power, influence, and resources of these syndicates have posed a concern for crime agencies around the world (Feltes, 2013; Gardiner, Parry, & Robinson, 2017 ). One study shows that online betting market, which is highly global in nature, has led to criminality in sports (Andreff, 2016). There is an increase in illegal gambling related to sports, which is difficult to control because of the involvement of multiple actors in multiple global locations (Feltes, 2013).

An important point is made by Williams (2013), where he states that the “increase of international trade in the second half of the twentieth century, the information and communications revolutions, and the development of a truly global financial system have all provided conditions facilitating the growth of business, whether licit or illicit” (p.67). In terms of criminal enterprises and syndicates, the globalisation of trade, communications, transportation, technology, and financial systems, have meant that there are now new opportunities for criminal groups to operate and have their criminal activity facilitated across national borders (Williams, 2013).

In a way, free trade system as well as communication and logistic growth has not only facilitated international trade and commerce, but also international crime. The same processes and networks that facilitate the cross border trade in goods and services, also provide opportunities for trade in illicit goods, such as, drugs, arms and ammunition and stolen art (Williams, 2013). The same processes also allow transnational criminal syndicates to facilitate human trafficking across borders (Pati, 2011). Another important link between processes of globalisation and criminal activity is provided by the migration of peoples across borders. With globalisation, there is an increase in push and pull factors that lead to greater migration movements across the world (Williams, 2013, p. 68). While much of immigration is not related to criminal activity, some of the migrants are part of illegal and criminal networks (Williams, 2013, p. 68).

The globalisation of financial systems is also an important link between globalisation and criminal activity. The available digital system of financial transactions, make it easy for facilitation of crime across borders as money travels easily and makes it possible for exchange of illicit services and goods for criminals working across borders (Williams, 2013).

One of the areas of significance in context of globalisation and crime is corporate crime. Corporate crime has emerged to be one of the major incidences of globalisation as well as one of the major challenges because of the transnational nature of corporate crime, which makes I difficult to investigate and link to specific individuals or companies. Corporate crime has become a major challenge in terms of investigation and attribution because of the transnational nature of corporate crime and the perpetration of crime through global networks (Bratsis, 2003). The following discussion will focus on corporate crime and the later part of this section’s discussion will focus on the link between globalisation and terrorism.

To come back to the issue of corporate crime, the first point that can be noted here is that multinational corporations are truly global corporations with presence across the world (Dörrenbächer & Geppert, 2011). Due to their multinational presence as well as the resources at their disposal, any impact of their activities is widespread (Dörrenbächer & Geppert, 2011). In context of multinational companies, the nature of the crime is generally and largely white collar crime, and therefore, it is not traditional criminal activity that is associated with multinational companies. However, due to their international presence and the command of influence and power, the globalisation of crime that is seen in the context of multinational companies has macro effects and ramifications and are therefore more serious than traditional crimes (Barak, 2015). Globalised white collar crimes perpetrated by multinational are categorised into different kinds of crimes, including but not limited to environmental crimes and financial crimes (Barak, 2015, p.108). The seriousness of the macro effects of such white collar crimes can be related to the fact that these crimes have far reaching and wide ranging effects (Barak, 2015). The Enron scandal is an example of such serious, macro-effect, white collar crimes, as this led to the loss of loss of billions of dollars for the employees and shareholders of Enron (Barak, 2015).

The growth of transnational criminal syndicates mimics multinational corporations in the manner of their globalised networks and the foundational economic activity. Like multinational corporations, transnational criminal syndicates also have global presence, tremendous resources and networks spread across nations. Similar to multinational corporations, transnational crime syndicates are also facilitated by the development of transportation and communication. The growth of Internet and development of logistics have also aided transnational crime syndicates in the same way as multinational corporations.

An example of transnational crime that is founded on the similar economic factors as transnational commerce is that of human trafficking. Human trafficking is facilitated by global networks that relate to transportation and communication. Transnational organised groups and syndicates are involved in the activity of human trafficking that spreads across continents (Pati, 2011). There are sex rings that are located in different global locales, and between which trafficking becomes easier as the globalised networks facilitate travel and logistics involved in this criminal activity (Pati, 2011). Involvement of transnational crime syndicates makes human trafficking a global problem and issue. As there are interdependent global markets due to globalisation, there is a facilitation of the transfer of people and commodities across borders. The same processes that are facilitating corporate activity of trade and commerce in commodities, are also facilitating border human trafficking. This is because of the creation and perpetuation of market conditions that allow illegal human trafficking to provide labour as well as aid the sex industry. Pati (2011) rightly notes that globalised networks also are conduits for cross border human trafficking (Pati, 2011).

Not only human trafficking, but other kinds of trafficking are also becoming significant areas of transnational crime. Examples can be taken here of trafficking of cultural property, such as, art and antiquities, trafficking of drugs and trafficking of arms and ammunition. Recent years have seen a development of a very profitable underground global market of illegal trafficking of cultural property (UNESCO, 2010). The Interpol considers art trafficking, illegal drugs trafficking, and arms trafficking to be the three most widespread global criminal activities (UNESCO, 2010). Art trafficking alone generates billions of dollars’ worth of revenue each year (Levine, 2011). Transnational networks facilitate the theft, transportation, and commerce of arts and antiquities while the spread of criminal networks across nations makes investigation difficult and success rates low (Chang, 2006).

It is also important to note that the criminal syndicates that are involved in one kind of trafficking, are usually involved in other kinds of trafficking as well. Therefore, it is common for human, art, drug, and arms trafficking to be facilitated by the same networks and by the same criminal syndicates. Examples of such well established criminal syndicates are seen in Mexico and Central America (Hawley, 2010). In Mexico, drug cartels are not only involved in drug trafficking, but also in fuel bunkering, prostitution, human trafficking, kidnapping and abductions and software piracy (Hawley, 2010). Therefore, the business of these cartels is spread across different activities. The seriousness of the crimes that can be committed in the facilitation of such businesses can be seen from an incident in Mexico in 2010, wherein 72 dead bodies of immigrants were discovered in Tamaulipas, a region known for the turf war between two powerful Mexican drug cartels, the Zetas and the Gulf Cartel (Hawley, 2010). While it is unclear as to what lead to the sequence of events that led to the deaths of so many immigrants, the well known activities of the cartels in drugs and human trafficking leaves little to imagination and it is highly probable that these immigrants were victims of trafficking by the Mexican drug cartels (Hawley, 2010).

Terrorism is also facilitated through cross border networks that make it easier for terrorists to use the available networks of communication, financial systems, Internet, and transportation and logistics to commit transnational acts of terror (Nassar, 2009). The September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States are an example of such acts of terror that are conceptualised in transnational contexts and facilitated by global networks (Nassar, 2009). Since then, many such terror attacks across Europe and other parts of the world have been facilitated through the networks of globalisation (Nassar, 2009). The forces of globalisation that facilitate cross border criminal activities, such as, human trafficking, drug trafficking and arms trafficking and other forms of illicit business, also facilitate terror activities.

There is another link between globalisation and terrorism, which is that of the forces of globalisation and their impact on local groups and populations that may create a breeding ground for terrorists (Nassar, 2009, p. 114). Globalisation has also brought with it increasing dispossession and poverty, as seen in some African and Asian nations. This had led to the creation or perpetuation of human conditions that breed discontent, disillusionment and even anger against capitalist forces as signified by the western nations (Nassar, 2009). This may be another cause of increasing targeting of the United States and other western nations such as United Kingdom, France, and Belgium. The same link can also be found between globalisation and international crime. This has been explained by the Queer Ladder Theory, which argues that people get involved in organised crime so as to gain economic empowerment (Okoli & Orinya, 2013). This is one of the theoretical approaches to understanding the link between globalisation and transnational crime. As per this approach, the approach for understanding the link between globalisation and transnational crime is by understanding the reasons why people from impoverished backgrounds commit crime and how does exclusion from economic advantages of globalisation lead to the creation of conditions that perpetuate crime.

Thus, globalisation has led to the drastic changes and advances in technology and communication, which affects terrorism in two ways. First, terrorism may be spreading because of some communities and peoples being excluded from the economic benefits of globalisations (Khan & Estrada, 2017). Research does indicate that there is a negative relationship between economic development and terrorism, which may substantiate the claims that there is increased terrorism because of exclusion from economic development (Krieger & Meierrieks, 2011). Second, terrorist groups are assisted in expanding their influence by their ability to reach out to people across the world with their message and ideas, as is seen in the case of ISIS (Islamic State), which has managed to recruit a significant number of people from across the world (Khan & Estrada, 2017). Terror groups like ISIS are able to spread their literature and ideas through Internet and online chatrooms have provided a breeding ground for terror groups over the years (Khan & Estrada, 2017). Therefore, the use of different media for reaching out to a larger audience is something that is facilitated by globalisation and allows terror organisations to reach out and recruit a larger number of people. The spreading of terror propaganda is facilitated through modern mass communication and Social Media (Khan & Estrada, 2017). It may also be noted that international terrorism is by definition terrorism with “victims located in a different country or citizens of a different country than that in which terrorists originate” (Zimmermann, 2011, p. S153). Therefore, international terrorism does for its greater part depend on the international networks that are needed to make such acts possible.

Conclusion

Globalisation creates the conditions that perpetuate open markets, ease of communication, transportation, financial transactions and movement of goods, people and services. This has implications and ramifications for facilitating crime as well as terrorism. Globalisation has led to the creation of conditions that facilitate licit as well as illicit business, which is one of the areas where the maximum international crime is seen. Illicit businesses include drug trafficking, human trafficking, arms smuggling and sex rings. There are now transnational criminal enterprises that are involved in cross border criminal activities. The networks that are spread across the world allow transportation, communication, and exchange of such illicit actions. Terrorism is also aided by developed Internet and communication systems which allow terror organisations to spread their message globally. Terror organisations are also using these methods to recruit members for their organisations through Internet chatrooms and Social Media.

Globalisation also impacts increase in crime and terrorism because it creates great wealth for some and excludes many others from such economic advantages of globalisation. This leads to discontent and dissatisfaction making such excluded communities and peoples as easy targets for the criminal syndicates and terror organisations.

Finally, as beneficial globalisation has been in bringing the world closer in terms of business, trade, finance, and communication, the same processes have facilitated the commission of crimes and terror acts. Therefore, it can be concluded that globalisation has significant impact on increase in crime and transnational terrorism. Take a deeper dive into [topic] with our additional resources.

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