Inclusive Curriculum in Education

Introduction

The inclusive curriculum has received wide interpretation in its use in educational studies. By definition, an inclusive curriculum is one where every student is entitled and anticipated to participate and access in a course. It is further explained as the institutional approach to establish inclusivity from concept into action (Kingston University, 2019). The inclusive approach to learning, according to Romer and Croucher, does not place groups against each other for the opposition, instead, it pays respect to diversity and does not suggest the absence of commonality between groups (University of Birmingham, 2019). It is in support of the broadening concept of participation. Inclusive curricula are aligned to the regulations under the Equality Act of 2010 that applies to aspects of education, employment, and service provision. The Act outlawed any form of indirect or direct discrimination on the basis of protected characteristics like ethnicity, disability, gender reassignment, sexual orientation, gender, age, and religious beliefs. The Act requires that every public authority, especially universities, to promote equality across every activity which necessitates policies of equality and diversity. From a general perspective, an inclusive curriculum can be substituted with ‘good’ teaching (University of Birmingham, 2019).

This essay aims at providing a critical review of the manner in which learning theories influence curriculum design. This will be done using a description of the most common learning theories and identifying their impact on curriculum designs. A conclusion shall be developed to show how they result in an inclusive curriculum.

Learning Theories

For the purpose of proper understanding, it remains necessary to provide a description of learning theories and curriculum designs. To begin with, learning theories are a set of principles organized to explain the process which people gain, store and remember knowledge (Kelly, 2012). Different learning theories provide knowledge about how the process of learning happens. Understanding these theories has proven crucial and influential towards several developments made in different fields of education – especially in adult and higher learning. The learning theories consider the existing knowledge of a learner in the form of concepts and helps understand learners through their mental structures. Together with teaching, the mental structures of the learners are bound to change, and this called ‘conceptual change.’ Some of the learning theories used in contemporary education systems include cognitivism, behaviourism, and constructivism among others (Case, 2008).

Curriculum Design

Teaching is done using education curricula. This leads to the description of curriculum design as the deliberate, systematic and purposeful arrangement of the curriculum using blocks of instruction within a course or a class. It is also described as the planned experience of education which expresses the educational ideas being put into practice. Put differently, curriculum design is a means through which teachers can plan instruction. In the process of designing a curriculum, it becomes evident the kind of ideas that are being put into practice by teachers in the form of tasks to be accomplished, who will do them, and which schedule will be followed. Apart from improving a student’s learning, curriculum designs are implemented to ensure that learning goals complement and align with each other subsequently from one level to the next (Schweitzer, 2019).

Behaviourism

During the first half of the 20th century, behaviourism had a significant force in psychology. Behaviourism aims at explaining learning through phenomena which can be observed (Asher, 2003). Behaviourists argue that learning should not factor in internal events such as beliefs, feelings, and thoughts, not on the basis that they do not exist, but rather due to the causal factors of learning being the events in the observable environment.

Behaviourism grew as a strong discipline in psychology because of the unreliability and broadness of the schools of thoughts which were prominent at the start of the 20th century. For instance, structuralism used introspection and this made it unreliable because it failed to consider the significant developments in science. Functionalism has a focus which was overly wide since a variety of research directions were advocated by its proponents. In addition, behaviourism stood out because conscious events could not be observed and those who had such experiences were not given enough trust that they would provide an accurate report about them. In other words, behaviourists were overwhelmed by the subjective nature of other schools of thought in regard to learning (Schunk, 2012).

Behavioural theories of learning lay emphasis on the impact of the environment especially by the concern that stimulus is arranged and showcased and how responses become reinforced. This unique quality of behaviourism makes it different from other learning theories, such as cognitivism, because it pays little attention to differences between learners. As an outcome, the behaviourism theory has two important variables to measure learning (Schunk, 2012). The variables are reinforcement history and developmental status. The reinforcement history variable is the extent to which a person was reinforced over their past for performing a behaviour which is either same or similar. The developmental status variable is what the person is able to do at the present time, considering their present degree of development (Schunk, 2012) .

Behaviourists assert that since human behaviour is learned, it can be unlearned or replaced with new behaviours too. For example, when a behaviour loses acceptance in society or is constantly given punishment, it becomes replaced by a new and acceptable one. The desired response is always arrived at from the reinforcement history, whereby it must receive subsequent rewards to facilitate learning (Parkay & Hass, 2000).

Behaviourism is expressed using conditioned learning theories. The conditioning theories do not approach learning in terms of behaviour but in terms of environmental stimuli or events. Still, conditioned learning theories overlook the need to consider mental events in order to explain learning. Operant conditioning is the most popular conditioning theory of learning which was advanced by B. F. Skinner from Watson’s basic model of stimulus response (Skinner, 1972). The operant conditioning model rewards part of behaviour or random act which approaches the behaviour which is desired. Skinner had the belief that things which are regarded as pleasant have a strengthening and energizing impact on behaviour. Skinner performed conditioning experiments in both human beings and animals to reveal that behavioural response which had favourable outcomes are likely to be repeated while those with unfavourable outcomes were suppressed (Shaffer, 2000).

To explain the operant conditioning model, Skinner used a rat, whereby if it presses against a certain bar, it would receive a food pellet. Having identified the reward (the food pellet), the rat is likely to press against that bar again. The act of pressing a bar, in this case, is referred to as operant condition and the food pellet is regarded as the reinforcer. Punishers are the unfavourable outcomes which cause suppression of a response; thus, decreases the likelihood of an undesired behaviour from recurring. Skinner also believed that every individual grows out of their unique experiences of operant learning (Shaffer, 2000).

Influence of Behaviourism in Curriculum Design

In the design of an educational curriculum, the behaviourism theory of learning has a significant impact. The curriculum design is formed with the behaviourist philosophy; that knowledge is present independently and externally from the individual. A learner, in this school of thought, is viewed as a blank slate which needs to be filled with experience for learning. The learning processes adopted fall in with the behaviourists’ belief that learning substantially happens when there is a change or a new behaviour is acquired in the course of association with stimulus and responses (Kelly, 2012).

Using the philosophy of behaviourism, curriculum designs have adopted the system of punishments and rewards in classrooms. Desired behaviours are rewarded and the inappropriate ones are punished. The rewards are given in different measures which are deemed to be just enough for the learner in one way (Zhou & Brown, 2017). Curriculum designs based on behaviourism tend to bring about changed behaviour using reinforcements. The key to successful learning under the behaviourist point of view is by conditioning a child during the earliest years of their lives. This is necessary to achieve the goal of training them into becoming what the society expects of them. The children will get to learn by means of modelling an observation. Other behaviourist techniques used in the curriculum design include drills and practice, prompt feedback, monitoring of students and giving direct instruction. Commonly, the teacher is in control as the dominant person in the class period. For instance, if a teacher intends to teach students the behaviour of remaining seated throughout a class lesson, a reward to a student who successfully accomplishes the task could be running of an errand, checking the mailbox of the teacher, or being given the permission to head to the library after the end of the class lesson. Alike every other method of teaching, success in learning the desired behaviour depends on the stimulus presented to each student and the subsequent response, as well as the associations which the learner makes (Zhou & Brown, 2017). The stimulus is provided by the teacher to the student, who in turn responds and if the response is the desired behaviour, it gets reinforced by the teacher. This eventually results in a change in behaviour through learning (Rwandembo & Mugimu, 2015).

Behaviourist curriculum designs carefully analyse and sequence the behaviours and needs of the learners. The desired outcomes of the learning process are specified whereby things which need to be changed are pointed out and a criterion is set up for their evaluation. Drills can be used abundantly and programmed instructions are aimed to bring about the desired behaviour. The evaluations and assessments are done in a progressive manner by the teacher while the student is denied the chance of doing so by themselves. Eventually, summative assessments in the form of standardized tests are given. Behaviourism is ideal for curriculum designs that aim at developing the skills of an individual, such as teaching and developing nursing skills. The principles of programmed learning are deployed in this case. It involves mastering tasks which are related in a manner which is sequential eventually leading to skill acquisition. Programmed learning involves the management of the way people learn under conditions which are controlled (Child, 1973). An example of programmed learning is computer-aided learning. The learning materials are brought forward using a learning module which is self-paced with small steps. The learner gets to understand the skills and gains knowledge in small doses and the experience of learning provides feedback on a frequent basis (Pritchard, 2009). For training and skill-based education, programmed learning, which is inspired by behaviourism, serves a crucial purpose. For example, subjects and courses which are technical or require practical understanding rely on programmed learning. Engineering and health-related courses of study would benefit a lot from behaviourism curriculum designs (Rwandembo & Mugimu, 2015).

Cognitivism

This learning theory was advanced by Jean Piaget which focuses on how a child develops cognitive pathways in physical response and understanding of experiences. The thinking in this learning theory is that the processing of information results in retention and understanding. The knowledge systems of structures of cognitivism are constructed actively by the learners according to their pre-existing structures of cognition (Berkely Graduate Division, 2019). Cognitivism has an intrinsic approach to motivation whereby goals are set by learners and motivate grows from themselves. After observing children, Piaget understood that children create ideas (Lefa, 2014). Their limits of knowledge acquisition extend beyond what they learn from teachers and parents alone. They have the power to construct knowledge through their own effort. Piaget’s work forms the basis of constructionist theories which hold the belief that knowledge is something that is constructed and learning happens when children formulate artifacts and products. Constructionists opine that an individual is likely to engage in learning when the artifacts created possess some personal meaning or relevance (Lefa, 2014).

According to Piaget, there are four stages at which an individual undergoes mental growth. These stages, in their correct order, are; a) sensorimotor stage, b) preoperational stage, c) concrete operational stage, d) formal operational stage (Schunk, 2012). In order to advance to the next stage of cognitive development, Piaget believed that every child has to pass each stage. New intellectual abilities are exhibited in each stage as children acquire a more complex understanding of the physical world. Piaget asserts that no stage can be skipped and the sequence is necessary for intellectual development (Lefa, 2014). The sensorimotor stage begins from childbirth and lasts up to 2 years of a child’s age. In this stage, high motor activity is experienced in the absence of symbols. Knowledge, in this case, is limited since it depends on physical experiences and encounters. It is difficult for children to predict a reaction from the interactions and as a result, they learn through frequent experiments and trials and errors. For example, the child shakes rattles and puts objects in their mouth. As their mobility increases, so does their cognitive potential. Their early linguistic abilities also begin at this stage. The preoperational stage occurs between 18 to 24 months after birth and up to 7 years of childhood age. Concepts which are more complex, like cause and effect relationships, are yet to be learned. Intelligence may not be logical but is intuitive and egocentric (Zhou & Brown, 2017).

The concrete operational stage is reached at between ages 7 and 11 years old. Systematic and logical manipulation of things which are linked to concrete objects is done and becomes illustrative of intellectual development. The child’s thinking grows from being egocentric into having awareness of the external environment. The child is also able to make concrete references at this stage. The formal operational stage is marked by the period between adolescence and adulthood. At this stage, symbols which are related to concepts which are abstract are used. Adult thinking allows multiple variables to be manipulated in many systematic ways. Hypotheses can be formulated and abstract concepts and relationships can be thought about (Zhou & Brown, 2017).

Influence of Cognitivism on Curriculum Design

Cognitivism, as suggested by Piaget, grew into having a significant impact on educational practice. This impact can be observed in various curriculum designs adopted in the present day. The instructions which are founded on the principles of cognitivism are real and authentic. Teachers are supposed to present a classroom environment which facilitates the spontaneous exploration made by children. Instruction material is presented to children for their exploration while they are encouraged to actively construct their own knowledge from experience. The curriculum designs adopted also encourage practices of accommodation and assimilation. Generally, teaching is customized to suit the background, needs, and interests of the children (Fenstermacher & Richardson, 2005). Teachers are more focused on teaching certain skills directly and establishing contexts which bear great meaning to the learner. The cognitive perspective describes that children acquire information by a receipt, storage, and retrieval of information. Therefore, teachers are urged to consider and analyze proper tasks, instructional materials as well as other significant characteristics to facilitate the efficient and effective receipt of information among the learners (McLeod, 2003). The instructional material can be made up of illustrative examples, demonstrations, as well as constructive feedback which presents mental models for the students to embody. Since the information present in the instructional materials are initially processed by the working memory, in order to ensure schematic acquisition takes place, instructions ought to be designed in a way which reduces the load on working memory and to promote changes in the long-term memory that is linked with the schematic acquisition.

For the schema for learning to be activated and utilized, a learner has to know their background knowledge and remain exposed to the strategies which bridge the pre-requisite skills to the learning objectives (McLeod, 2003). Also expected, is a teacher’s possession of the instructional activities schemata so as to handle smartly the interaction between activities and goals which are disparate. The schemata are made up of structures which have different degrees of generality. Some schemata are meant for global activities like checking homework and other activities of smaller units like the distribution of paper to the classroom. Advanced organizer procedures are used by teachers to aid the students to organize and understand concepts, ideas, principles, themes, and issues. Metacognitive strategies are greatly encouraged to be used by the students and this includes process specification, goal specification and monitoring disposition (Yilmaz, 2011). For efficient and effective processing of information among students, teachers use a variety of principles and strategies while teaching subjects. Among the strategies is the provision of instruction in a manner which is organized such that the structure and relations made of the material is visible to the learner using concept maps or other kinds of graphical presentations (Yilmaz, 2011). Single representations which are coherent can be used to give the learner a chance to focus their attention instead of having split attention from one place to another. Teachers can develop a relationship between material that is new and what is already known and this presents some form of mental scaffolding regarding the new material. Teachers can analyze carefully the demands of attention for instruction and this is done by counting the elements of instructional messages so that the learner does not have to consider too many elements simultaneously (Yilmaz, 2011).

Constructivism

This learning theory takes the philosophical and psychological point of view which holds that people construct or form much of what they understand and learn. The logic which propels constructivism is the education restriction where teachers do not have the power to transmit knowledge by simple means to students, therefore, students ought to construct knowledge actively on their own. This means that once they discover information, they transform it and perform checks between the old and new information and make revisions to the current rules in cases where they are no longer applicable. In the process of acquiring knowledge, the student is regarded as an active agent. Extensive studies on human development are the key drivers for the blooming of constructivism, especially with Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theory of cognitivism. The constructivists, which include the likes of Duffy, Perry, Bednar and von Glasersfeld, propose a variety of implications of the theory of constructivism for the instructional developers by stressing that the outcomes of learning ought to focus on the process of constructing knowledge and the goals of learning should be gauged from original tasks with specified objectives (Olusegun, 2015). Constructivism is increasingly being applied to teaching and learning. Thus, it leaves a historical trail showing how learning theories are changing from influences of the environment to human explanatory factors of learning. The shift is represented by the key influencers of the growth of this theory, whereby cognitivism represented a shift away from behaviourism and constructivism represents a shift from cognitivism to focus on the learners themselves. Constructivism is founded on the premise that learning (cognition) comes as an end result for ‘mental construction.’ Simply put, students learn by attempting to fit newly acquired information with things that they knew before. The constructivist way of thinking is that the context at which learning is taking place, as well as the attitudes and beliefs held by the student, affects their learning. The theory also contends that people construct knowledge and give it meaning in the context of their experiences (Olusegun, 2015). Constructivists al

Influence of Constructivism in Curriculum Design

The contemporary education curricula can be observed to fall in with the constructivist way of thinking. Learning environments are designed with the foundational thinking of constructivism. Such learning environments will be observed to share a few common traits. Some of the traits include knowledge being shared between students and teachers, authority being shared between students and teachers, the teacher takes the role of a facilitator or a guide, and learning groups are heterogeneous with small numbers of students. In pedagogical institutions with constructivist ideologies, learning will be observed to include authentic tasks in contexts which are realistic, more than one mode of presentation of information is used (such as video, text, or audio), and students are encouraged to engage in metacognition and reflection activities which increases the awareness of processes of constructing knowledge. Learning is centered on students and they are taught how to appreciate different perspectives which are likely to make up alternative solutions to a problem. To add, students can determine the way they will learn. Constructivism insists on the use of curricula which is integrated and has teachers using materials in a manner where learners can be involved actively. Some teachers have integrated the constructivist practices in teaching third grade students in a classroom. During the fall season, a teacher, Kathy Stone, introduced a unit concerning pumpkins (Schunk, 2012). Children learned where pumpkins grow in social studies. They also learned about products that are made from pumpkins. The use of pumpkin was also taught to them in a history class along with its benefits to early settlers. Afterward, Kathy takes the class for a field trip to observe a pumpkin farm and the children get to learn how pumpkins are cultivated. Each student gets to pick a pumpkin and return to class with it. In the classroom, the pumpkin becomes a valuable tool for learning. In a class of mathematics, students get to estimate the weight and size of the pumpkins and proceed to actually weigh and measure them.

Class graphs are established for them to compare every pumpkin according to their shape, size, color, and weight. The children also try to estimate the number of seeds which they think Kathy Stone’s pumpkin has. Then, the seeds are actually counted when the pumpkin is cut open. In a different class activity, the students get to make pumpkin bread using Kathy Stone’s pumpkin. For an art class, the students are asked to design a shape of how their pumpkins are carved and with assistance from Kathy, they get to carve them. In a language arts class, the students get to write a story concerning pumpkins. They also get to write a letter to the pumpkin farm thanking them for the pumpkins. In spelling lessons, Kathy teaches the students words which were used in studying the pumpkins. This scenario illustrates how the study of pumpkins is integrated into the curriculum in a constructivist manner (Schunk, 2012).

Experiential Learning Theory

This theory of learning is widely used management research and learning activities for more than thirty years. The theory builds upon the foundational work by John Dewey and Kurt Lewin among others. It presents a theory that is dynamic according to the learning cycle which is motivated by the dual dialectics of experience/abstraction and action/reflection. Both dimensions present a learning space which is holistic enough to facilitate the transactions of learning to occur between the environment and people (Kolb & Kolb, 2011). Experiential learning theory was advanced by David Kolb, a psychologist, who first presented his styles of learning in 1984. The theory, according to Kolb (1984), contends that learning is the procedure where knowledge gets created by transforming their experience. The theory operates on two levels where one level includes four stages of learning cycles and another level includes four separate styles of learning (McLeod, 2017). Kolb’s theory is mainly concerned with the internal learning processes of the student. The four stages of learning cycles are described as follows. First, the concrete and immediate experiences work as the foundation for making observations. The next stage involves individual reflection of the observations and starts to build an overall theory of what the information could mean. The third stage involves the formation of generalizations abstract concepts according to the hypothesis formed by the learner. The last stage involves testing the concepts in different situations (Cherry, 2019).

The four separate styles of learning are diverging, assimilating, converging, and accommodating. To begin with, diverging considers the way people tend to observe things from unique points of view. These perspectives are sensitive (McLeod, 2017). Therefore, people, in this case, would prefer to observe and not do anything as a way of collecting information and trying to utilize their imagination in solving problems. Diverging is best at assessing concrete scenarios from multiple different points of view. Kolb referred to this style of learning as diverging due to the excellent abilities of people in using this style of learning to generate ideas, especially during brainstorming (McLeod, 2017). The people who learn through diverging have wide cultural preferences and like to collect information. Assimilating is another learning style which involves watching and thinking. An assimilation is a logical approach which is also concise. Concepts and ideas are regarded as being far important than people. People who use assimilation need perfectly clear explanations instead of a practical opportunity and they excel at comprehending a large amount of information and organize it in a logical and clear format. Most of the time, assimilators are more focused on abstract concepts and ideas and pay little attention to people. Attraction is directed to theories which are logically sound more than approaches that are founded on practical value (Schunk, 2012). The third learning style of converging which involves doing and thinking. People who use a converging style of learning have the potential to solve problems and they will use up what they have learned in finding solutions to practical matters. They prefer tasks which are very technical and they pay little concern about interpersonal aspects and people. The fourth style of learning is accommodation – one which involves doing and feeling (Cherry, 2019). This is like a hands-on kind of learning which depends more on intuition and less on logic. Accommodators use analyses made by other people and prefer taking an approach that is more experiential and practical. New experiences and challenges intrigue them. They will be found to rely on their gut-feeling instead of making sound analyses (Schunk, 2012).

Influence of Experiential Learning on Curriculum Design

Teachers rely on Kolb’s experiential learning stages to engage in critical evaluation of the learning provisions which are typically made available to students. This aids in creating learning opportunities which are more suitable to the learners in question (McLeod, 2017). Teachers ensure that learning activities are carried out and designed in a manner which every learner gets the opportunity to participate in a way which is suitable for them. In addition, individuals can acquire assistance to learn in ways more effective through identifying the learning styles they least prefer and strengthening them by applying the experiential cycle of learning. Material and activities in the curriculum need to tap into every stage of experiential learning and students ought to be taken through the whole procedure in a sequence manner (McLeod, 2017).

Experiential learning is used service learning, cooperative education, and internships among others. Service learning is a learning and teaching stratagem which integrates community service which is meaningful with reflection and instruction so as to make the learning experience enriching (Zhou & Brown, 2017). Also, it useful in teaching civic responsibility and reinforces communities by being able to meet needs in the community. In cooperative learning, experiential learning is applied where classroom studies are integrated with learning while on-the-job. Generally, it ensures that learning is tied to the goals of the career. A learner acquires field-based experience which integrates practice and learning. Cooperative education uses experiential learning stages to enhance practical skills in education courses like media arts, engineering, and business. Internships are closely tied to cooperative education which also uses experiential learning to instil practical experience and knowledge to interns who hold a position within a place of work on a temporary basis. Internships can be either unpaid or paid. In most cases, interns are college students who wish to gain experience in their field of study especially when they are interested in a specific career (Zhou & Brown, 2017).

Conclusion

To conclude, there are many psychologists with different learning theories. Chosen for this critical review were four learning theories, which are behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism and experiential learning theories. These theories have a remarkable influence on the educational curriculum designs. Behaviourism uses the system of reinforcements and punishments as a way of encouraging learning of desirable behaviour. Behaviourism influences the curriculum design where it is deemed to be more useful during early childhood education where a system of punishments and rewards target to mould desirable behaviour from children. Cognitivism focuses on how a child develops cognitive pathways in physical response and understanding of experiences. Its influence in curriculum design is evident where instruction material is presented to children for their exploration while they are encouraged to actively construct their own knowledge from their experiences. The constructivism theory of learning approaches students as individuals who have the power of constructing knowledge from their own minds with regard to past experiences. This theory influences the curriculum design by ensuring that learning is student-centred and students are encouraged to accept different points of views as they form alternative solutions to certain problems. The experiential learning theory holds that people learn from experiences. This affects the curriculum design where it is applicable in higher learning institutions through cooperative learning and internships.

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