The Research Cycle And Scientific Method In Family

Scientific method and emphasis on the importance of the different parts of it

The Research Cycle Some principles of success do operation in the field of research pertaining to family history. These principles have involvement with geography, customs, and governmental jurisdiction and so on. One of the principles has been the process usable again and again in the research in question, which is known as Research Cycle. It thus produces success over and over again. The researchers who are successful have used this cycle as it laid stress on: (a) Critical step to reorganize data in the event of new findings; and (b) the new information is evaluated in the context of all other available information (Wolpert et al., 1998). This process’ formulation has the advantage of making the critical step explicitly of the data reorganization in the event of new findings to evaluate the new information. The Scientific Method The approach to seek knowledge and involving the formation and test of a hypothesis is the scientific method. This methodology is usable in answering the questions in an array of disciplines beyond the scope of science, such as business. The provision of the scientific method is a systematic and logical way of answering questions and removal of subjectivity with the requirement of each answer being subject to authentication with objective evidence that are reproducible. Analysis of each section of the scientific method There is no and correct way of analyzing each section in scientific method. Irrespective the way a list of steps is documented, the scientific method’s goal is gathering data that would be validating or invalidating a cause and effect relationship. The carrying out of the analyses in scientific method is often in a linear manner. However, the cyclical

approach can also be adopted, as after reaching the conclusion, more questions are often raised. Proving a hypothesis – Slack, Essential Developmental Biology Jonathan Slack, a wellknown British embryologist has written a textbook, Essential Developmental Biology, based on the lecture courses he imparted to the students. Developmental biology can be termed as a science to explain how a range of interacting processes has been generating the heterogeneous size, shape, and structural features of an organism arising on the pathway to the adult from the embryo throughout a lifecycle.

Critical evaluation of the use of different models in research

Scientific Model The scientific model represents a generation of mathematical, conceptual, and physical representation that pertains to a real phenomenon having difficulty in directly observing the use of scientific models for predicting and explaining the behavior of systems or real objects and is usable in various scientific disciplines which range from earth sciences, to ecology, to chemistry, and to physics (Moczek, 2008). Albeit the scientific model is the modern science’s central component; at best they are approximations of systems and objects represented by them that cease to be exactly as replicas. Therefore, constantly scientists have been working in improving and refining models. Why are models used in science? A model, in science, has been a representation of an object, an idea or even a system or a process that is usable in describing and explaining phenomena that cannot be directly experienced. To what is done by the scientists, the models are central, in both the communication of the explanations and the research itself. Types of different models

The various types of models are based on applications for scientific modeling. For instance, modeling in Earth sciences has relevance with ocean and atmospheric phenomena for not only in forecasting of weather, but also of global warming and its scientific understanding. In the case of the latter, one model of note forms the model of general circulation, usable to stimulate climate change that are human- and non-human-induced. The geological events modeling, such as Earth’s plates’ theoretical movements and convection within Earth has the knowledge of advanced scientists. The modeling in ecology is usable in understanding plant and animal population and between the organisms, the dynamics of interactions. The material or the physical models, in the biomedical sciences, along with nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, that is usable in investigating the proteins and genes’ functions. Similarly, models of three dimensional types of proteins are usable in gaining insight into the function of the proteins and in assisting with the design of the drug. The scientific modeling also has construction and urban planning applications and the ecosystem restorations. What makes a good animal model? The development pertaining to the novel therapies with respect to its one of the major roadblocks is the lacking of the reliable and robust animal models. Validating and selecting animal models that can be mimicking the conditions of human is challenging, in particular when one faces chronic multi-factorial diseases such as obesity and diabetes. The goal to overcome this problem is to define the criteria for testing and development of pre-clinical models especially of diabetic kidney disease. To consider some of these basic criteria, the researchers coming from all fields may be improving their in vivo translatability of development and discovery activities. Ethical discussion The involvement of ethics is in the purposes of a model. The implication of these purposes considers a variety of stakeholders such as, users, modelers, and public; and their values. The concern of the ethics is also with professional standards of conducting for the modelers. The requirement of these standards includes modelers validating the assumptions of the model. Therefore, the modelers should be providing the

documentation of the model. However, validation has virtual impossibility when the representation of the model is with unique events, which may include nuclear accidents. Then the credibility is attainable to the maximum.

Advantages and disadvantages of the use of Zebrafish as a model of inflammation and development

Zebrafish a good scientific model The diets’ ingest with high contents of carbohydrates and fats, no or low exercise and routine of stressful nature are part of most people’s everyday lifestyle in the western world. Various diseases are triggered by these conditions with complex interactions among microbiota, the immune system, the metabolism, and the host genetics. These include diabetes, obesity, and inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) (Mantovani, 2010). These disorders’ incidence has been increasing globally that portends the need for new strategies for its study. In the recent times, most of the researchers uses murine models to understand physiopathology, genetics and interaction between the signaling pathways and cells in finding these diseases’ therapeutic solutions. A water fish of small sizes and tropical, zebrafish, share 70 percent of human genes and does conservation of physiological and anatomic characteristics and with mammals it conserves metabolical pathways (Mathias et al., 2006). This has been rising as complementary model of a new type for studying inflammatory and metabolic diseases. It has versatility, transparency, fast development, high fecundity, and low maintenance cost making the zebrafish an interesting proposition for the upcoming researches. Use of zebrafish model in studies

Often the DNA of a patient is being subject to sequencing in finding the mutation in gene which is potentially the causation of human disease symptoms. In determining if the functional loss of that gene could be causation of the seen symptoms in the patient, the identical gene is subject to mutation or “knocked-out” in zebrafish. After this, there is examination of the fish for similar symptoms. Albeit, it has much more difficulty in doing so, the patient’s exact mutation may be introduced as well in zebrafish, which is known as “knock-in” (Spence et al., 2008). If there is observation of one or more symptoms of the patient in zebrafish knock-in or knock-out model, there can be usage of zebrafish for further studies in helping determining why the disease can be caused by the mutation. For example, the muscle fibers’ structure can be under the examination under the microscope for abnormalities if the patient is suffering from a muscle disease (Brion et al., 2004). Or if the symptoms of the disease of the patient start during the knock-in, knock-out or in utero development, embryos of the zebrafish can be under the examination for the changes in gene expression (Her et al., 2013). This could be leading to the abnormal development. For neurological disease in a patient, the knock-out embryos’ neurons can be labeled fluorescently in seeing if they are incorrectly formed.

Inflammation is the immune system’s complex reaction that multiple biological responses have caused in tissues and can be occurring during the injury in all types of tissues. This process forms an immune response of non-specific type. Some physiological symptoms including the fluid accumulation, soluble mediators’ release, vasodilatation, elevated cellular metabolism, increase in the blood flow, and cellular influx constitute the trademark inflammatory response (White et al., 2002). However, the normal inflammatory process, in certain disorders, has prolongs and contributing to the chronic inflammatory diseases development such as chemokines, cytokines etc. Causes of inflammation A tissue fluid’s abnormal accumulation is Edema that may have the development because of inflammation. In specific organs it may occur or in any body part. An inflammation’s common form is the abdominal edema whose occurrence is in the abdomen and is responsible for the causation of inflammatory swelling. If the proper treatment is not conducted, it can lead to severity and even fatality. The abdominal edema’s cellular basis and its molecular mechanism could not be understood fully.

The western world’s standard of living in the last decades has resulted to have affected the human health. The factors including high fats and carbohydrates diet, stress, and sedentary lifestyle has triggered a state of insulin resistance, low-grade inflammation, and microbiota changes. This has led to the western diseases so to speak. The diseases of this sort include IBD (inflammatory bowel disease), heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and obesity amongst others. The estimated people affected by IBD are around 1-1.3 million in USA. The IBD, in humans, is a condition characterized chronic inflammation of colon and small intestine that appears as a result of interactions that are deregulated between the commensal microbiota and the immune system that genetic predisposition triggers of the external factors and the individual. There is also an array of spontaneous, genetic, and chemical models which are usable in attempting finding answers about different IBD issues. Inflammatory response after a stabbing The injury caused by stabbing can be eliciting an acute inflammatory response. This can even be leading to death. The inflammation can be through a coordinated series of cellular, molecular, organ, tissue, and systematic response driving the disease pathology of various kinds such as TBI (traumatic brain injury) and T/HS (Traumatic injury/hemorrhagic shock). The inflammation is a highly regulated, dynamic, and finely tuned process which cannot be called detrimental inherently, but has the requirement for the repairing of the optimal post-injury tissue, immune surveillance, and regeneration (Grounds et al., 2002). The driving force of the inflammatory response has been by the chemokines and cytokines and propagated partially by the damaged tissue-derived products. The inflammation is perpetuated by DAMPs via pro-inflammatory cytokines’ release, although there can be inhibition of it with anti-inflammatory cytokines. Advantages and disadvantages of using zebrafish The growing and current popularity to use zebrafish in human disease research is attributable to its favored physical characteristics, extensive knowledge base on the

existing organism, and ready experimental manipulation (Andersen et al., 2003). The relative cost is low to maintain a zebrafish facility in comparison to mice that has also been important. The zebrafish model’s advantages are several and increased technology for the development of this model’s manipulation. However, there have been specific characteristics of these fish and embryos in response to certain biological research questions that can be problematic. The zebrafish model’s most obvious shortcoming has been that it is not a mammal. Instead, the developing of embryos and poikilothermic have been lacking a placenta (Huang et al., 2011). This indicates that there may be metabolizing of certain drugs in a manner that is different or a different rate to the least in comparison to mammals and this can have altering effect in their function. The exposure of the zebrafish embryos to drugs in their absorption of growth medium directly without the placenta’s or mother’s metabolism modification.

Importance of the NF-κB pathway in health and diseases

Clearly NF-κB has been on the key regulators of the proinflammatory gene expression. The cytokines synthesis such as, IL-8, IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α are the ones that NF-κB mediates as is the Cox-2 (cyclooxygenase 2) expression. The IKK consequences are in mainly synoviocytes which is like fibroblast from the patients’ synovium with osteoarthritis and RA. The immunoreactive IKK protein, in both groups, has abundance in these cells. The IKK-β and IKK-α are expressible constitutively at the level of the mRNA. In these cells, the IKK function can be enhanced greatly by IL-1 and TNF-α which leads to endogenous IκBα and its degradation and NF-κB translocation. This pathway’s activation and induction as a consequence of ICAM-1, IL-8, IL-6 and collagenase-1 expression is being dependent on the IKK-β specifically. Therefore, adenoviral and transfection constructs that encodes negative mutant that is IKK-β dominant do preventing of the NF-κB nuclear proinflammatory and translocation of gene expression in synoviocytes, where IKK-α mutant which dominant and negative does not have any effects (Seale et al., 2000). The ability is there of NF-κB in functioning with other factors of transcription in concert, such as AP-1. For example, the translocation of NF-κB can be providing enhancement of the collagenase-3 (MMP13) gene transcription in the stimulated synoviocytes of IL-1. The collagenase gene transcription’s full expression depends however on the AP-1 participation, which induction of transcriptional kind have is following pathway that is distinct with the involvement of JNK (c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase) MAPK and its phosphorylation with the consequent c-Jun phosphorylation. Thus, the transduction cascade of the signal after the stimulation of cytokine of the results of synoviocytes in activating the kinase cascades running parallel and regulating NF-κB and AP-1. The proinflammatory cytokines’ production is enhanced because of this dual pathway, and more importantly, the expression is increased of the destructive enzymes regulating the remodeling of the matrix. Thus, NF-κB and AP-1 are activated simultaneously in IL-1 or synoviocytes stimulated by TNF-α along with the RA patients’ intimal synovial lining (Garrett et al., 2010). This is the in vivo site where the MMPs (matrix metalloproteinases) are produced. The AP-1 and the NF-κB do coordination of the stimulation and this is contributing to the cartilage and the bone destruction in the joint.

The IκBα and its necessary functions is limiting the inflammatory responses have been shown as the lethality of peri-natal kind of mice that is IκBα-deficient because of the multiorgan inflammation (Gantenbein et al., 2015). It has also been found that deficiency of IκBα have had the result of fatality after a week of birth. Testing the in vivo specificity of the negative feedback loop of IκBα for the signaling of the cytokine, the knockout mice of the IκBα have been generated. These have deficiency in the ubiquitous that induced cytokine stimulus TNF. It is quite remarkable that IκBα-deficient mice and its lethality was what the compound deficiency rescued without any evidence of abnormalities related to the secondary lymphoid organ or the inflammation in adult animals. Moreover, after this examination was done by the macrophages derivable from these mice, it was found out that in IκBα there is deficiency of BMDMs, failing to terminate appropriately NF-κB activity in the TNF stimulation response although not showing in the LPS stimulation the NF-κB in response.

Role of macrophages in the inflammatory response

Role of macrophages in our immune system A significant role is played by the macrophages in immune responses and immunity. Their assumption is the exhibition of a defensive role by their ability in carrying on phagocytosis of microbes and parasites. Their regulation is done on the lymphocyte proliferation and activation and they have essentiality in their process of activation of the B- and T- lymphocytes by allogenic cells and antigens (Glass et al., 2010). Increased “activated macrophages” bactericidal activity has been on the basis of mechanisms that are immunologically linked and which involves lymphocytes. The ingested microbes are killed by the macrophages, although the mechanism with which it can be accomplished does not have full understanding yet. Jablonski’ energy diagram The protection is provided by the inflammatory M1 spectrum macrophages from the infection that can be the causation of tissue damage and inflammatory diseases, where M2 spectrum macrophages that are activated alternately do reduction of inflammation and promotion of tissue repair. The macrophage phenotype’s modulation can be beneficial therapeutically and further require the molecular programs’ understanding, controlling the macrophage differentiation (Lam et al., 2004). The mechanism having the potentiality by which the differentiation can be done by the macrophages may be via miRNA (microRNA). The miRNA binding to the messenger RNA and modifying post-transcriptionally expression of gene, function and cell phenotype. It can be hypothesized that inflammation having the association with miR-155, miRNA would have the requirement for macrophage inflammatory state’s typical development. The rapid up-regulation of inflammatory M1 (LPS + IFN-γ) of more than 100 fold

macrophages has not been with M2 (IL-4). The inflammatory genes of Tnfa and Inos, Il1b and the proteins corresponding to them or enzymatic products have had reduction up to 72 percent in knockout mouse of miR-155 macrophages. However, the deficiency of the miR-155 cease affecting the expression of the gene associated with M2 gene Arg1 in the macrophages of M2 (IL-4). In addition, oligonucleotide inhibitor, a miR-155, suppressed efficiently the gene expression of Tnfa and Inos in macrophages of wild-type M1 (LPS + IFN-γ). To conclude, it can be identified that as a small RNA, miR-155 has a defining and critical effect on the response of inflammatory M1 macrophage. As an important phenotype of inflammatory macrophage, miR-155 has shown the potentiality as a therapeutic target in numerous inflammatory diseases.

Why are Zebrafish ideal for live imaging using confocal microscopy? The embryonic brain of zebrafish has a shape that begins at 18 hpf (hours post fertilization) as within the neuroepithelium inflate there are ventricles. The initial steps, by 24 hpf, of neural tube morphogenesis have had the completion. The method of imaging with the use of confocal microscopy has been used with which embryos are injected at one cell stage with mRNA that encodes memGFP (membrane-targeted green fluorescent protein) (Ellett and Lieschke, 2010). Following the incubation and injection, the embryo is inverted, mounted that are now between18 and 24 hpf, in agarose and its imaging by confocal microscopy. It should be noted that embryo of the zebrafish is transparent that makes its system ideal for the fluorescent imaging. While the focus of the analyses has been on the hindbrain and the midbrain-hindbrain boundary, this method had the extension to be analyzed for any region to a depth of 80-100 μm in the zebrafish (Zwier et al., 2004).

NF-Κb signalling is important for the migratory behaviour of macrophages towards caudal fin amputation

Macrophage migration NF–kB (Nuclear factor kappa) has been a very important transcript factor playing a key role to regulate the diversified biological responses, which includes angiogenesis and survival, profile ration, inflammation, immune responses, and pathological responses, including the metastasis and promotion of tumor. The NF–kB family, in a mammals, consists of five proteins, c-Rel, Rel B, Rel A (p 65), NF-κB2 (p52/100), and NF-κB1 (p50/105). The activation of NF-κB is being induced by the inhibitor of phosphorylation of NF-kB (IkB). In conditions which are unstimulated, NF-kB has predominant presence in the cytoplasm and here has been bound to IkB proteins. There are various stimuli that have activated the NF-kB, such as inter leukin-1(IL-1), cytokines, growth factors, hormones, and TNF (tumor necrosis factor) (Gilmore, 2006). There have not been any experiments conducted where it has been found that cancer progression and development has been regulated by the NF-kB and activated constitutively in the leukemia cell lines, lymphoma, breast cancer, and lung carcinoma. Moreover it has been found that there is significantly increased level of NF-kB and this level have high correlation with the outcome of poor prognosis in glioblastoma and ovarian cancer. The NF-kB and its inactivation in relation to gene knockout or signaling NF-kB has found in the experiments promoting the responses of anti-tumor. In the experiment report published recently, NF-κB signaling targeting has shown that in ovarian and other cancers, there is therapeutic efficacy. MIF (Macrophage migration inhibitory factor) is a mediator of proinflammatory in nature playing a key role in the innate response of the immune. The original identification of the MIF has been as a cytokine or molecule having been subject to induction in a hypersensitive response of delayed type by activated T cells. The expression of the protein in variety of cell types, in the form of epithelial cells, eosinophils, T lymphocytes, macrophages/monocytes, and endothelial cells after stimulating with molecules of inflammatory nature or being exposed to stress. The expression of MIF is being found to be augmented significantly in a number of tumor types such as lung cancer, colon carcinomas, melanomas, breast cancer, and prostate tumors. Moreover, several experiments conducted have shown that growth of tumor is also induced by MIF with control of the immune response and the promotion of the angiogenesis that are associated with the tumor. rMIF (Recombinant MIF) does acceleration of the migration and growth of cells. Decrease in migration and cell growth and increase in apoptosis have been found that follows the MIF removal by the deletion of the gene, MIF blockade carried out by the antibodies, the MIF inactivation by mutation, MIF inhibitor, MIF anti-sense plasmid or the interfering and small RNA. These results have shown MIF blockade diminishing Rho GTPase family member activity, Rac1, augment of p53 phosphorylation and diminishing Akt phosphorylation. The knockdown of MIF has been found to be leading to decreased interleukin-10 (IL-10), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-α expression. It is possible for the MIF in binding the cell surface receptors, such as CXCRs, CD44, CD74, or entering cell through endocytosis. The direct binding of the JAB1can be done by it where the JAB1 has been a tumor suppressor p53 and AP-1 transcriptional complex co-activator and inducing the path of tumorigenic signaling pathway having association with the progression in tumor. TXNIP (Thioredoxin-interacting protein) has been a protein of multifunctional nature in a range of cellular processes which includes the regulation of inflammation, metabolism,

TXNIP (Thioredoxin-interacting protein) has been a protein of multifunctional nature in a range of cellular processes which includes the regulation of inflammation, metabolism, cell aging, cancer, and cell cycle. In an experiment, the level of TXNIP has been shown to have augmented in HL-60 cells been subject to treatment with 1,25-(OH)2D3 (Albensi et al., 2000). The expression of TXNIP is being upregulated by a variety of stresses, such as serum deprivation, heat shock, UV irradiation, H2O2 exposure, and transforming growth factor-β stimulation. Additionally, anti-proliferative and anti-cancer reagents augment the TXNIP expression in cancer cells. There is also involvement of TXNIP in the regulation of immune cells. From the TXNIP-deficient mice, dendritic cells are derived that have exhibited in the defects related to the T cell proliferation and activation and their regulation. An important role is played by the TXNIP in the function and development of the natural killer cells. In addition, the inhibition of TXNIP is related to the antioxidant function and the expression of thioredoxin (TRX) via directly done interaction. Some recent experiments have shown that thioredoxin (TRX) loss in hematopoietic stem cells have been causation of severe damage under the conditions of stress. A key role is played by the TXNIP in the secretion of IL-1 through interaction with NLRP3.

Additionally, it has been found out that endotoxin shock can be exacerbated in TXNIP-deficient mice by LPS. A tumor suppressor protein is TXNIP which has been downregulated significantly in a number of tumors, such as gastrointestinal, renal, and breast cancers. It also does inhibition of cell proliferation and the regulation of p27 stability via directly interacting with Jab1. Additionally, the TXNIP over expression have found to be the suppressor of metastasis and tumor growth in the melanoma of mouse model. In a recent experiment, it has been shown that TXNIP can be inhibiting hepatocarcinogenesis with the suppression of NF-κB that is TNF-dependent in signaling pathway (Perkins, 2007). On the basis of evidence that TXNIP and NF-κB, MIF have had the involvement in the tumor progression, a hypothesis can be formed that regulation can be done by MIF with respect to the link between the TXNIP and the NF-κB signaling.

The NF-κB activation has the involvement of two main signaling pathways, noncanonical or alternative pathway and canonical pathway. Both have been key to regulate inflammatory and immune responses in spite of their differences in the mechanism of signaling. The response of the canonical NF-κB pathway has been to diversify stimuli, which includes ligands of a range of superfamily members of TNF receptor (TNFR), PRRs (pattern-recognition receptors), cytokine receptors and B-cell receptor and TCR (T-cell receptor). For canonical NF-κB, the primary mechanism has been the IκBα ‘s inducible degradation that have been triggered by the multi-subunit IKK (IκB kinase) through its site-specific phosphorylation. The composition of IKK of a couple of catalytic subunits, IKKβ and IKKα, and NF-κB, which is the regulatory subunit and it is been termed the NEMO (essential modulator) or IKKγ. The activation of IKK is possible by different stimuli, which includes stress agents, microbial components, mitogens, growth factors, and cytokines (Zhang et al., 2015). When activated, there is triggering of IκBα degradation that is ubiquitin-dependent by IKK phosphorylates IκBα at a couple of N-terminal serines in the proteasome which resulted in transient and rapid canonical NF-κB members’ translocation, mainly the p50/c-Rel dimmers and the p50/RelA.

Contrasting to this is the canonical NF-κB pathway, where the response of the noncanonical NF-κB pathway to a stimuli’s particular group, includes the ligands of TNFR superfamily members’ subset including RANK, CD40, BAFFR, and LTβR. Additionally, the activation of the noncanonical NF-κB cease involving the degradation of IκBα, although relying on the NF-κB2 precursor protein’s processing, p100. For this pathway, a molecule of central signaling is NIK (NF-κB-inducing kinase), activating and cooperating functionally with IKKα in mediating p100 phosphorylation that in turn has been inducing p100 processing and ubiquitination. The p100 processing has the involvement of the degradation of a structure similar to C-terminal IκB. This has resulted the generating of nuclear translocation and NF-κB2 p52 of NF-κB complex p52/RelB that is noncanonical (Gan et al., 2005). The canonical NF-κB, functionally, has the involvement of all immune response aspects, where the apparently the noncanonical NF-κB pathway has had the evolving of supplementary signaling axis which has the cooperation with NF-κB pathway to regulate the functions of specific nature of immune system that is adaptive.

The role of Receptor, Ligand, Transcription Factor, Kinase, and Phosphorylation in macrophage migration The macrophage MIF receptor (CD74) has been cloned recently, although the mechanism of signaling has not been given with much evidence. Therefore, the hypothesis is that there is requirement of the signaling with the additional molecule including CD44 activating nonreceptor tyrosine kinases. In the experiment, CD44 and CD74 deficient COS-7/M6 cell has been utilized in creating transfectants of stable nature which expresses CD44, CD74, and truncated CD44 that lacks its domain of intracytoplasmic signaling. The binding of MIF has been mediated alone by CD74. However, ERK2 and ERK1 kinase phosphorylation induced by MIF has had the requirement of full length CD44 coexpression (Karin and Ben-Neriah, 2000). The binding of MIF has the association with CD44 and CD74 serine phosphorylation. The investigations usable to kinase inhibitors or siRNA has given the indication that activation of ERK2 and ERK1that are MIF-induced via CD44 has the requirement of Src tyrosine kinase. The studies of CD74-CD44, CD44, and CD74 transformants and the mutant cells corresponding to them have shown that the CD44 and CD74 have the necessity of the protection of MIF from apoptosis (Oeckinghaus and Ghosh, 2009). The data found in this experiment establish CD44 as CD74 receptor complex’s integral member that leads to the transduction of the MIF signal. Cytochalasin B that has provided the blockade of actin polymerization, diminishes both the Src kinase activity and phosphorylation that is LPS-induced with no changes in the levels of total protein that implies that Src kinase has the potentiality of the pharmacological target of rearrangement related to the actin cytoskeleton. Moreover, Src kinase is directly associated with the actin that performance of the immunoprecipitation analysis confirms with the use of HA-tagged Src kinase and GFP-actin wild-type (Sun and Liu, 2011). Thus, the rearrangement of actin cytoskeleton

can be the most important event to regulate the inflammatory responses controlling the Src kinase activity and its downstream that signals proteins. Further, a biflavonoid, morelloflavone is shown in blocking the smooth vascular muscle cells’ migration via inhibiting the multiple kinases that are migration related such as RhoA, ERK, c-Src, and focal adhesion kinase. There are many kojic acid’s newly synthesized derivatives, a compound that has been with known glioma proliferation of cells; antioxidative, anti-proliferative, and anti-inflammatory properties and activation mediated with TLR4 in the microenvironments of macrophage-managed tumor. The kojic acid derivatives in relation with the anti-inflammatory activities have been under evaluation with the determination of cytokines in macrophages and nitric oxide (NO) and having stimulation with LPS (Tak and Firestein, 2001). Amongst the variety of tested derivatives, the exhibition of RHS-0110 has the strongest inhibitory activity on the levels of Src kinase phosphorylation. The kojic acid derivatives with noncytotoxic or lower doses also have been subject to down regulation of interleukin- (IL-) 6 and NO production expression induced by LPS in RAW264.7 cells. It should be suggestive here that natural products inhibiting inflammatory responses and the activity of Src kinase exhibiting strong anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive properties. Thus, they have the potentiality as anti-inflammatory therapeutic drugs’ candidates. In the atherosclerosis mouse model, hyperlipidemia normalization does promotion of macrophage emigration and atherosclerotic plaques regression by LXR (liver X receptor), in part, whose induction has been mediated by it of CCR7, which is the chemokine receptor. An experiment has reported that modulation of LXRα serine 198 (S198) phosphorylation has been done with CCR7 expression. The S198 phosphorylation of low levels is observable in the regression environment in plaque macrophages, whereas the regression environment is with CCR7 expression of high levels that are observable. Consistency with those findings, in mouse and human macrophages cell lines, the CCR7 gene expression has the induction when at S198 LXRα is nonphosphorylated. In BMDMs (bone marrow-derived macrophages), it is

observable in an experiment that CCR7 induction by ligands promoting the nonphosphorylated LXRα S198 has been lost in the BMDMs that are LXR-deficient. The occupancy of LXRα at the promoter of CCR7 has been increased and modification of histone having the association with the gene repression that has had the reduction in RAW264 (Sun et al., 2013). There are seven cells that have expressed RAW-LXRα S198A (nonphosphorylated LXRα) in comparison to the RAW264. These seven cells have the expression resembling to WT (wild-type) RAW-LXRα WT (phosphorylated LXRα). The profiling of the expression in relation to the RAW-LXRα S198A cells that are RAW-LXRα in comparison to the RAW-LXRα WT cells have been revealing of the cell migratory induction and genes of anti-inflammatory nature and proinflammatory genes repression. The model of LXRα S198 in phosphorylated and nonphosphorylated states has had the identification of conformational changes that are phosphorylation-dependent to hinge the region with the commensuration of protein interaction sites presence. Thus, the regulation of the gene transcription is by the LXRα S198 phosphorylation that includes CCR7 and the likes of antiatherogenic genes.
Fluorophores usable in combination with microscopy to study cell behaviour There are various approaches developed for the microscopy of transmitted light that includes techniques of DIC (differential interference contrast), phase contrast, enhancement of the living specimen’s inherent contrast, and polarized microscopy in making them more visible. When a system of optical microscopy is chosen for live‐cell imaging, the three variables mentioned henceforth should be under consideration: (a) the requirement of the speed for the acquisition of the image; (b) viability of the specimen; and (c) detector sensitivity (signal‐to‐noise). The system usable must be making the use of light to the maximum and using the optical elements as few as possible in the light path. In optimizing the signal‐to‐noise, the filters’ combination is selectable for the live cells imaging matching closely with the used fluorophores’ spectral profiles and usable in experiments. The detector technology advances have the enablement of reducing the levels of illumination (Verma et al., 1995). For confocal microscopy, photomultiplier tube cathodes have turned to be more and more sensitive. The camera’s sensitivity also has the importance in its consideration. The intensified

camera is usable for this purpose or the CCD (charged couple device) that is back-illuminated and sensitive camera (Sun, 2012). With respect to the acquisition speed, especially with imaging done simultaneously, with radiometric analysis or multiple fluorophores of a single probe that switches between the output or filters from a monochromator that will be reducing the time of acquisition. Cell Fractionation In an experiment, it has been found that NF-κB activity in HCE-T cells has been increased with the treatment of TLR2 ligand Pam3CSK4 and the level of IκB-α with respect to the phosphorylation have been augmented with the adding of Pam3CSK4, while the level of total IκB-α protein has remain identical. The subunit p50 that has been active with NF-κB has had the translocation of the cell nuclei after the treatment of Pam3CSK4 as early as 1.5 h. The mediation of the NF-κB activation has been done by IκK (Vallabhapurapu and Karin, 2009). The up-regulation of chemokine MCP-1 by the pathway of TLR2 NF-κB at both protein and transcript levels has been mediated by the IκK (Israel, 2010). The evaluation of four studies on the NF-κB downstream activation has been in cornea epithelial cells with TLR-2. The investigation in one study has revealed that NF-κB that uses p65 detection in the cells’ nuclear fractions. In another study, the investigation of the activity of NF-κB with anti-NF-κB antibodies in cell lysate has been carried out, where two different studies had the examination of the pIκB-α levels. However, the examination was done by neither with respect to the MCP-1 expression as probable target. Additionally, corneal epithelial cells in previous studies cease employing the assays of NF-κB promoter. Western Blot The performance of the western blots is being briefly described with protein samples (30 μg per lane) separable in 12% SDS-PAGE gel and transferrable to the membranes of PVDF. Then there is blocking of the membranes in TBS-T (TBS-Tween 20) with 5 percent BSA at room temperature for 1 h and being subject to incubation for 2 h with primary antibodies at room temperature. The incubation of the membrane takes place after that for the secondary antibodies that are horseradish peroxidase conjugated at

the room temperature for 1 h. For three time (each time 5 minutes), it is washed with TBS-T having incubation with chemiluminescent substrates of SuperSignal West Pico and with the visualization of the signals on X-ray films. FRET The vimentin has been a common contaminant in the mass spectrometry of affinity purification. This has been observed in the control samples of immunoglobulin G (IgG). These results have been sought to be confirmed with the use of transfer of microscopy-fluorescent resonance energy related to fluorescence lifetime (FLIM-FRET). This occurs only when there is close proximity of the molecules (2–10 nm). There has been agreement of the co-IP data leading to the increase in FRET occurring between vimentin and NLRP3 in BMDM that is treatable with LPS after that is the nigericin (Mogensen, 2009). This indicates that increase in the interaction takes place between the two molecules. There has been significant reduction in the interaction in the presence of COR123625. Summing it up, the data has been suggestive of the requirement of MIF for the interaction between vimentin and NLRP3 that has the requirement in turn for NLRP3 inflammasome assembly.

Controls that should be used in experiments

The fusion of the fluorescent moieties in signaling proteins of interest is allowable for the subcellular events’ imaging in live cells that has the chance to reveal the signal transduction networks’ dynamic behavior. The experimental analysis in tracking the signaling with the help of transcription factor NF-κB (nuclear factor kappa B) has been in real time and in individual living cells (Karin and Delhase, 2000). A computational model matching the experiments’ observation has been on the basis of experimental data derivable from the genetically manipulated cells on the sustained oscillations’ physiological role in NF-κB signal transduction.

Experimental variation and experimental factors

The experimental design has the aim of efficiently obtaining sufficient data with minimal cost and effort, from which statistically and scientifically valid conclusions are drivable. To understand the processes and goals of experiments along with the sources and amount of experimental variability all have the importance to design the successful NF-Κb in macrophage migration (Hayden and Ghosh, 2011). The experimental factor has been a controlled independent variable. That is to say a variable with which the experimenter has set the level. A factor is a general category or type of treatment. There are various treatments constituting various levels of a factor.

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