Critical Race Theory in Education

Research Background

Ethnic and racial categories are prevalent in multicultural societies in the western nations where physical and cultural differences are made out between white and non white communities (West, 2019). Emphasis on the cultural differences between white and non white communities, and the latter’s resistance to adapting to mainstream culture and nationalism is also at times part of the discourse (Richeson, and Sommers, 2016). It may also be noted that whiteness is also associated with normalness and that the tendency to associate being white with being normal is also seen in the educational institutes in western nations where majority of the teachers are white, who may then consciously or subconsciously define normalness in terms of race or colour (Annamma, Boelé, Moore, & Klingner, 2013). Therefore, there is a cultural standard of whiteness that is prevailing in the education system with White students considered to be the cultural standard and non white students considered to be the exception (Escamilla, 2006). Critical Race Theory has critiqued the way normalness is associated with whiteness and calls for the need to challenge the normality associated with (Annamma, Boelé, Moore, & Klingner, 2013). In this context, what is needed is the use of intersectionality and counter-narratives, so that the narrow conceptualization of normal can be challenged and redefined (Annamma, Boelé, Moore, & Klingner, 2013). Another perspective related to whiteness is that of guilt which is associated with the history of slavery and colonisation, and this can also impact the interracial relations between white and non white communities (Durie, 2012). Due to the histocity of slavery and colonisation associated with whites and non whites, interracial relations between them are an area of academic interest and some controversy. Interracial relationships are both problematic and abused. One of the areas of controversy in the earlier times was related to inter-ethnic sexual relations, which were accepted between white men and black women, but not between black men and white women, so as to prevent black slaves from interfering with white women. Black women have been reported to have been sexually assaulted by their white slave owners, and this has played an important role in shaping social and historical ethnic origins and the rules of ethnic relations. According to Hoffman et al. (2018), Black people have a complex and painful history in the context of interracial relations due to such problematic issues in the past.

The loss of social and collective memory has also played a role in the hostility that the black communities may feel towards white people. This is also relevant because structural imbalances of power between whites and non whites were also influential in creating dominant discourse (Bronner, 2017). Due to the dominant discourse on race relations being created through writings by White writers, historically, Black people have had to deal with their depreciation as a community as the narrative created by the White writers was predominant (Hoffman et al., 2018). Social changes have had an impact on the way race relations are structured. Literature on interracial relationships and marriages show that an increase in interracial and inter-nationality marriages has led to the development of a more cosmopolitan and tolerant environment (Gullett, and West, 2016). Literature also indicates that certain groups demonstrate more prevalence of inter-racial marriages. For instance, Black men indicate higher incidence of inter-racial marriages as compared to Black women (Brummett 2017). However, despite these social changes, interracial relations remain complex between whites and non-whites. For instance, inspite the increase in interracial marriages, such marriages are seen with disapproval by family members who may not support interracial marriages (Hoffman et al., 2018). In some extreme cases, members of different ethnic groups report end of close relationships with their family members (Hoffman et al., 2018). Despite these negative outcomes of interracial marriages, Hoffman et al. (2018) found that more and more interracial marriages have gained acceptance and social disapproval relating to interracial marriages has decreased to some extent (Hoffman et al., 2018).

Research Rationale

The aim of this study is to study race relations amongst university students. The study also focuses on the perception of the university students of inter-ethnic relations in the 21st century. In general, the main purpose of this study is to explore the perceptions of the university students with respect to race relations. Previous literature indicates that for many young people involved in interracial romantic relations, there is a tendency to view the relationship as casual and not something that may lead to marriage (Steyn et al., 2018; Stevens and O’Hanlon, 2018). Apart from exploring perceptions towards such relationships, the aim of the study is to explore the nature of interactions between students belonging to different ethnic groups, types of relationships, causal links and the factors influencing people's positions.

Research Aim and Research Objectives

Research Aim

The aim of this study is to explore the attitudes of university students towards inter-racial relationships and how can youth work practice address this issue.

Research Objectives

To explore the attitudes of university students towards inter-racial relationships?

To explore how these relationships are shaped and affected by ethnicity, race, culture and social economic background

To explore what types of prejudice, discrimination and stigma are experienced by interracial partners

To explore how being in an interracial relationship impacts personal relationships with friends and family

To explore how youth work practice can address this issue

Literature Review

Social reactions to interracial relationships

Interracial romantic relationships and social reactions to such relationships have been the subject matter for some academic research. In a social context, such relationships are controversial, because seen from a social context, there is a “line of contact” that is drawn between racial groups, where the boundary is drawn at being friends but not romantic partners (Miller, et al., 2004, p. 354). This line of contact is the one that if crossed by individuals, they can experience familial and social disapproval (Miller, et al., 2004). Theoretical approaches to interracial marriages can be considered in the context of evolutionary and social structural theories of mate selection (Miller, et al., 2004). Evolutionary theories emphasise on mate selection for the purpose of survival of genes of the individuals involved. Sexual selection theory, which is one of the evolutionary theories, emphasises on the selection of a mate based on the preferences related to traits that are desirable and can be passed on to the offspring (Miller, et al., 2004). Another theory, which is a part of the evolutionary theories is parental investment theory, which postulates that the prospective parent that invests more in offspring tends to be more particular about mate selection than the prospective parent that is less invested because the “costs associated with a poor mate choice are greater for the more heavily investing sex” (Miller, et al., 2004, p. 356). As women have more investment in the offspring, considering the period they have to spend in gestation and post delivery breastfeeding, women are considered to be more interested in mate selection as the costs of poor mate selection are higher for women (Miller, et al., 2004). The social structural theories emphasize that mate selection depends on the social roles of the men and women and mate preferences are the result of the social roles played by men and women (Miller, et al., 2004). Men have traditionally been physically stronger and more involved in activities of the provider, while women have been involved in care giving and child bearing activities (Miller, et al., 2004). This has led to the socialisation of the gender roles that also have an impact on their mate preferences and selection.

For both the evolutionary and social structural theories, there is a common assumption that women will generally prefer mates who can provide resources for the sustenance of their offspring (Miller, et al., 2004). This has implications for interracial marriages, as for both social structuralists as well as evolutionary approaches, it will be assumed that women of any race will prefer to mate with men who are able to possess resources. Applying this to a racial context, one can note that resources are generally concentrated with white communities, due to their socio-economic superiority, and the economic disparities between white and non-white communities; there is a general understanding that white communities have more resources and are economically better situated than non white communities. In other words, this may mean that women of any race, would prefer white males as compared to non white males. Resource enrichment may impact mate selection for women of any race, as noted by the theory of social exchange, which has also been used to explain why individuals may choose romantic partners from a different racial community than to which they belong. For example, white women may choose to marry black men with higher economic status than themselves, in order to achieve a better economic status and black men may marry white women with lower economic status with a view to achieving a higher social status which may come with having a white wife (Webb 2017). Resource enrichment may not be the only reason why interracial relationships are formed. The theory of racial motivation explains that many interracial or inter-ethnic marriages are motivated by racial differences (Webb et al., 2019). Such motivations may be the result of curiosity about racial differences that may increase sexual interest or attractiveness of people that belong to a different race. Racial motivations may have implications for interracial relationships, especially in multicultural societies which offer more opportunities to individuals to interact with and form relationships with people from different racial and ethnic backgrounds. At this point, it may be noted that marriages between different races are more common in areas where community structures are used to promote and strengthen inter-ethnic marriages, particularly communities that are already multicultural in nature (Bland 2017). The increasing multiculturalism and integration of our societies have led to greater acceptance of mixed relationships.

Interracial relations in a historical context, the construction of race and multiculturalism

Race and ethnicity are both social constructs as is reflected on much academic research. Both race and ethnicity have bene used to categorise human society into groups. Categorisation on the basis of race is based on the physical appearance, while categorisation on the basis of ethnicity is derived from descent and culture (Malik, 1996). Historically, race is a more prevalent form of categorisation, while ethnicity is more recent. For instance, the 1991 Census in the UK used ethnicity for the first time and the 2001 Census used formally classified ethnicities like White, Black, Asian and Chinese ( Office for National Statistics, 2015). In either case, be it race or ethnicity, the concepts are socially constructed. The concept of race has been understood to be a product of European colonialism, which led to the popularisation of the idea of race and racial differences, that were based on the biological or physical appearance of people belonging to different racial groups (Anthias & Yuval, 1992, p. 2). It has been argued that there is no natural or biological justification for racial categorisation because genetically all human beings are the same, and it is only ethnographical and anthropological differences that have led to the categorisation of people (Anthias & Yuval, 1992). In other words, physical differences and stock or collective heredity of traits led to the racial categorisation of people (Malik, 1996). Similarly, ethnicity is also a social construct, where historical, territorial, and cultural differences have led to the categorisation of people into different ethnicities; which also makes ethnicity more dynamic and evolving as compared to race (Craig, et al., 2012, p. 23). Racialisation itself has been historically used in three different contexts: first, racialisation is a descriptive process, second, it is a psychological process, and third, it is a process involving self-racialisation or empowerment based on the concept of race. A descriptive process sees race being used to identify individuals with a particular race, or describing the characteristics of individuals on the basis of race or distinguishing one group of people from the other based on the race (Garner, 2010). There is support for descriptive racialisation, as is seen from the way Census is structured for collecting demographic data (Garner, 2010). The psychological or critical process of racialisation sees racialisation as a result of colonisation, and slave trade which was also due to the dehumanisation of the colonised races (Meer, 2014). Racism has also been critiqued for being encouraging of capitalism and colonialism through the propagation of the idea of the “White Man’s burden” (Fanon, 1986, p. 228). The problem of the 20th century has been related to the “colour line” (Du Bois, 2014, p. 3). Racialisation of self-racialisation is a process where identification on the basis of race is done for the purpose of empowerment and it is a newer concept. This is mostly related to Black people using their race as a way of empowerment as seen in the US, with notions such as “Black is beautiful” (Garner, 2010, p. 30).

Inter-ethnic and interracial heterosexual relationships have been studied by researchers who have particularly studied the reasons for such relationships between white and non white partners (Banks 2015). Social science research focusses on how interracial heterosexual couples come together, and the comparison of ethnic relations and ethnic relations (Fozdar, and Rocha, 2017). Qualitative research studies have been conducted on views, experiences and views of interracial couples and their experiences with society (Plummer et al., 2016).

The Social Construction of Interracial Couples

The social disapproval of interracial marriages and coupling has been linked to the ideas of Darwin's theory of evolution and natural selection, from which was borrowed the idea that there should be an avoidance of ​​mixing of races (Wong 2017). Seen from this angle, social disapproval of interracial marriages may be seen in a biological context, where such intermingling of races may be considered to be undesirable for the reason that it leads to the mixing of races and leading to mixed race offspring. In this context, ‘Whiteness’ in particular becomes a natural quality that social structures would want to preserve as also explained by Lipsitz (1998) who wrote that "Whiteness" has cash value, that White communities want to preserve because Whiteness provides them with better access to and advantages in the areas of employment, housing, education, and health care. Consequently, White people are encouraged by members of their society to invest in "White- ness," and to remain true to their White identity as it leads to more access to resources, opportunity, and power (Lipsitz, 1998). Due to this, White communities make an effort at preserving the purity of their "superior race" which coupling with coloured races would pollute and make impure (Lipsitz, 1998). This may also lead to the vilification or social disapproval of those who step across racial lines and marry partners from outside their race. For instance, research indicates that White women who choose non White partners or husbands are often shown to be free or sexually aggressive or more masculine in their nature, which is a way of vilifying or socially disapproving of such women by those members of their society who do not consider their interracial marriages with approval (Harris 2017). From a cultural angle, interracial marriages may be disapproved of because there are significant cultural differences between whites and non whites. For instance, a research study set in the United States found that there are significant differences in how European American and African American people spent their leisure time, which meant that interracial couples often had challenges in this context and felt socially isolated in various aspects of their daily lives (Hibbler & Shinew, 2002). The study found that the social isolation of interracial couples included areas of work, family, and leisure time (Hibbler & Shinew, 2002). The social network theory explains how groups form networks and socialise and how the networks can be analysed to understand the behaviour of the people (Fischer, 1977). Social network theory is based on the premise that individuals are linked to the wider social group through their relations with other individuals, such as relatives, friends, co-workers, and acquaintances. As such, each individual is at the centre of a web of social bonds that combine with other similar social bonds to form the wider social bond that encompasses all individuals (Fischer, 1977). For interracial couples, forging such bonds can become challenging because they may not have support within their own communities due to their interracial marriages or relationships and consequently no common community within which such bonds can be forged (Hibbler & Shinew, 2002). Couples from interracial backgrounds often find themselves having to deal with racism and discrimination, not only from the community, but also from their own families, which may lead them to shun social life and not forge social bonds with members of their respective communities (Hibbler & Shinew, 2002).

Social Construction of Black women, Black Femininity, Gender and Mixed race as ‘Ideal’

The discourse on interracial relations between Whites and non Whites, raises a number of important questions regarding the experiences of Black women who are involved in an interracial relationship and the impact of such relationship on her interactions with social institutions. Interracial relations can pose challenges for Black women and impact her interactions with social institutions prevalent within the wider Black community (Wong, 2017). Black women’s experiences may also be coloured by the intersection of their race and gender. The intersectional approach emphasises on the ways in which the various dimensions of social life are intersected and cannot actually be isolated strands, allowing for a multidimensional approach on a specific dimension of social life. Research indicates that Black women have a complex history with acceptance to interracial marriages and coupling (Childs, 2005). Compared to Black men, Black women have more negative viewpoint of interracial marriages (Childs, 2005). Popular discourse or representation as seen in film and television, also indicates that many Black women are opposed to interracial relationships (Childs, 2005). Opposition to interracial dating by Black women is complex and may be attributed to a variety of reasons, including, jealousy and anger toward White women, internalisation of racism by Black women, and how interracial marriages may impact the worth of Black women (Childs, 2005). In an intersectional context, Black women’s attitudes to interracial marriages may be impacted by both racism and sexism, with Black women feeling devalued by white standards of beauty and also having to deal with a shortage of available Black men due to the latter’s relationships with White women, and a lack of opportunities for them to date interracially (Childs, 2005). A detailed analysis of heterosexual relationships between Black British women and White men can provide a better understanding of how Black women are impacted by the fact of their being in interracial relationships in a social and cultural context (Sau-ling 2016). In this study, attention is paid to how Black women in the UK respond to interracial relationships. The project reveals how black women create interracial relations by asking for their attitudes and beliefs about ethnic relations, folk culture and media.

Communication issues of interracial friendships

Interracial friendships can provide a context where differences between groups can be resolved in order to reduce prejudices and conflicts between them (Jacobson & Johnson, 2006). Transsexual interracial friendships can be useful in reflecting on the state of the race relations in the society and often link to positive feelings among the members of different racial groups, rather than the negative emotions highlighted in the study of racist attitudes (Jacobson & Johnson, 2006 ). On the other hand, negative interracial communications, such as, those that involve violence between different racial groups, or feelings of animosity or anger, have the tendency to even impact racial relations in not just one country but different countries due to interracial communications travelling beyond borders (Zenovich, & Cooks, 2018). Interracial communication as a concept, was conceived by communication scholars in the United States, to first consider the historicity of the naming and coding or defining of (national) racial categories and then consider how people make meaning of race as identity in their interactions with others (Zenovich, & Cooks, 2018, p. 4). Interracial communications happen in a myriad of ways and are significant to how interracial friendships or race relations in general are formed, as noted by Zenovich, and Cooks (2018): “Just as individual and collective judgement always occurs in the shadow of justice and vice versa, it is the explicitly inter-related nature of Whiteness with other structures such as nation, gender, and capital that is imperative to understanding race and/in interaction both within and among cultural groups. That is, the discursive power of race lies in interactions among people, certainly, but not in isolation from the institutions, legal, religious, educational etc. that give also give shape and position to their lives” (Zenovich, & Cooks, 2018, pp. 3-4). Interracial communication may also face certain barriers that come in the way of members of different racial communities becoming friends. The first barrier is that of language because if members of different races do not fully understand each other's language, or are not familiar with the peculiar jargon that may be used within a particular community, this may be a barrier to communication. The second barrier is that of culture, because cultural differences and differences in perception of cultural norms that exist in a particular community may become an obstacle to communication, especially when people belonging to different communities understand the same problem or issues from different perspectives (Zenovich, & Cooks, 2018). Cultural barriers can become all the more pronounced where there are differences in religious beliefs. The third barrier may be in the form of ideological differences as members of different communities may have different ideological perspectives (Zenovich, & Cooks, 2018). Some communities may demonstrate a tendency to more conservatism and others may demonstrate more liberalism, leading to conflict between members of different communities due to their different perspectives. Due to such barriers in formation of positive interracial communications, there may be barriers to developing of interracial friendships, which may impact romantic interracial relations; interracial love relationships have existed throughout history but are rarely promoted or culturally accepted (Nguyen, et al., 2018).

Going back to the issue of social isolation of interracial couples (Hibbler & Shinew, 2002); and the social network theory, which explains how groups form networks and socialise and how the networks can be analysed to understand the behaviour of the people (Fischer, 1977), it may be noted that lack of positive interracial communication can also impact interracial marriages. If there are negative interracial communications, interracial couples may have difficulties navigating daily social life in the context of work, family, and leisure time; if there are positive interracial communications, interracial couples may find it easier to formulate social bonds in their respective communities. In the absence of such social bonds, interracial couples may often find themselves excluded from social interactions.

Interracial dating among university students

There has been an increase in interracial romantic relationships and marriages in many multicultural societies like the United States and the United Kingdom (Kelley 2016). The increase in such interracial relationships between Whites and non Whites reflects changes in social values and the impact of such changes in the dating and marriage patterns. Sociological studies often use social studies, friendship and marriage to measure how minorities are involved in the wider culture and to what extent minorities are integrated into the wider culture. The gradual increase in marriages between White and Black people, also reflects on the increase in interracial dating in the society (Goldberg, 2016). This does not mean however that the wider society is comfortable with the idea of interracial marriages and relationships and the discomfort is to some extent also reflected in the popular culture, which depicts the complex and ideological state in which interracial couples find themselves in (Kim, et al., 2016). Such complex states see interracial couples faced with discrimination and racism that may impact the quality of their relationship as well as the quality of their lives (Field, 2004). It may be noted that academic research too presents empirical evidence that supports the popular notion that people in interracial relationships experience chronic stress due to their relationships and how these relationships interact with the social institutions (Naidoo 2017). If the family and peers of interracial couples disapprove of their relationships, the couples may experience social isolation (Hibbler & Shinew, 2002; Fischer, 1977). In addition, people within interracial relationships may experience more stress than people who are in same race relationships because of a number of obstacles that the former may face with regard to interracial communications and interracial social networking (Zenovich, & Cooks, 2018). In a society, which is predominantly racist, true or perceived racial prejudice or popular opposition can be a source of stress for interracial couples. The issue that this project seeks to explore is how college students in interracial relationships deal with this stress, how they overcome it, and how it impacts them and their relationship with their partners.

Attitudes Toward Interracial Relationships Among University Students: Race, Class, Gender, and Perceptions of Parental Views

According to the UK Census Bureau, the number of marriages between Black and White individuals has increased sharply since the 1970s, although such marriages account for only 0.5% of all the UK marriages. This may also reflect on the increase in the interracial relationships in college students, which may later translate into marriages. The purpose of this study is to provide more information on the perceptions of college students to the problems in such interracial marriages. To this end, the current study explores the extent of heterosexual students' participation in interracial dating and their perceptions or experiences with regard to interracial dating. Research in the United States shows that marriages between Black and White individuals have been increasing since the 1960s, and that such couples have managed to navigate the social challenges that come with such relationships (Kennedy, 2002). Regardless of more social acceptance of interracial relationships, American research shows that possible consequences of such relationships still include rejection of the relationship by the family and the social circle (Gallagher 2017). The skin colour of individuals is still relevant to how they experience different aspects of their life, such as, experience in their work environments, access to education, and also relationships with other individuals. The increasing multiculturalism and heterogeneity of people in our society has encouraged some racial integration, but not enough to change completely the way society views interracial relationships (Garner, 2010). For instance, a study conducted in American schools found that with the increase in integration of the races in the workplace and society, there is an increase in the possibility of interracial relationships (Bahns, et al., 2017). It is generally considered that an increase in the integration of races in education, entrepreneurship and social sectors, leads to an increase in the possibility of romantic interracial relationships (Zavella 2018). There is little research that shows how British couples have dealt with such challenges that come with interracial relationships. The current research seeks to explore and provide more insight into this area by exploring the views of college students on such relationships. The aim of the study was to study the students' perspectives on intergovernmental relations with couples and to compare this view with couples with the same racial or ethnic background. The study also looks at the perception patterns of the participants' age, gender and education. In this study, the adult student population is considered in a publicly funded black university and among the alumni of the Baptist University.

Factors That Affect University Students’ Attitudes Toward Interracial Dating

There are a number of factors that can impact the attitudes of college students to dating individuals from a different racial background (Seward, 2001). One of the factors that can impact attitudes towards interracial dating is that of racial identity, which may be stronger in Black communities because of the emphasis that is placed on their race in popular culture as well as in general discourse (Seward, 2001). On the other hand, White people may place less emphasis on their race because of their already dominant status in the society (Seward, 2001). However, the attitudes towards interracial relationships may also be impacted by the gender of the individual (Seward, 2001). Black women are more likely to disapprove of interracial dating as compared to Black men as noted in literature (Childs, 2005). Literature discusses differences in attitudes, friendship and attitudes to marriage, as well as differences in attitudes towards race and gender (Joseph et al., 2015). In a study conducted in an American Midwestern university, researchers used an Interdisciplinary Assessment (ASIR) to study 142 students at the university (Blau, 2017). The study found that Black students were more likely to be friends with students from different racial backgrounds as compared to White students (Blau, 2017). Attitudes of Black students tested in the study showed that they are more willing to participate in mixed race meetings as compared to White students (Blau, 2017). However, these results are not replicated in another research (Field, et al., 2013), which shows marked differences towards interracial dating than the ones in this study (Blau, 2017). In a study conducted in four American and one Canadian university, with a sample of 1173 college students, the researchers examined the attitudes of the students to interracial relationships (Field, et al., 2013). The sample was also taken so as to allow the researchers to compare attitudes in historically Black universities with those at predominantly White universities (Field, et al., 2013). The findings of the study showed that there were less positive attitudes to interracial relationships at the historically Black universities and that there was more disapproval of interracial dating amongst Black students (Field, et al., 2013). Amongst the White students, there was more approval for Asian and White relationships as compared to Black and White relationships (Field, et al., 2013). Interestingly, male and female respondents did not show much statistical variation in their attitudes toward interracial relationships (Field, et al., 2013). With respect to perceived parental attitudes, White students believed their parents had the least favourable attitudes toward Black and White dating relationships (Field, et al., 2013).

Conclusion

This literature review has revealed some important themes in literature on interracial relationships and the attitudes of students to such relationships. Literature indicates that Black female students have more negative attitudes to interracial relationships as compared to Black male students. Factors that can affect attitudes to interracial relationships include racial identity and gender.

Research Methodology

Research Design

A research design is a strategic plan formulated by the investigator which would allow him to conduct the research in a systematic and organised manner for the purpose of attaining the objective of gaining more insight, knowledge and understanding on the specific area or question of research (Collis & Hussey, 2009, p. 3). A research design can be formulated as a quantitative, qualitative or mixed research study (Creswell and Creswell 2017). Depending on the objectives of the researcher, the research design can be formulated by him. In this study, qualitative research design is being used to investigate the attitudes of university students towards interracial relationships. Qualitative research design is ideal for studies that require data that is more insightful and based on the experiences and opinions of the participants (Creswell, 2013). Qualitative research is ideal for research questions, the answering of which require revealing layers of information, such as, information involved in experiences of the participants, which may be diverse and multi-layered (Walliman, 2015). Using qualitative research design is most suitable for this study as it allows the revelation of more in-depth data related to the ideas, experiences and opinions of the participants. Being a qualitative research, there are no fixed hypotheses in this study or pre-specified methods; rather some flexibility is allowed to the researcher to adopt methods that would be the most appropriate for the generation of the data related to attitudes of students to interracial relationships (Willis & Jost, 2007, pp. 53-54).

Research Approach

Research approach is defined as the approach that the researcher chooses for the purpose of relating the research to theory (Bryman & Bell, 2015). Deductive and inductive approaches are the two principal approaches to research (Collis & Hussey, 2009). When the researcher applies a deductive approach, he first identifies the general theory, then the hypothesis or questions, after which he collects the data, before finally confirming the relationship between the data and the theory (Perrin, 2015, p. 81). Where the researcher does not seek to create a new theory, but uses existing theoretical frameworks to study and explore the given area of research, deductive approach is applied. On the other hand, the researcher applies an inductive approach when he observes some phenomena, collects data with relation to that phenomenon, and then analyses the data to lead to a theory (Collis & Hussey, 2009; Bell 2014). In this study, the study is based on the primary data collection and analysis, which then leads to the formulation of theory, therefore, inductive research approach has been utilised.

Data Collection Method

This study has utilised both primary and secondary data collection methods. Primary data collected in this study came from the interviews conducted with the respondents. Semi-structured interviews have been utilised to collect the data. Semi-structured interviews are appropriate when the researcher wants to provide a comfortable and flexible environment to the participants, where the participants are not bound to a rigid interview instrument (Hammer & Wildavsky, 1989). Being flexible, and allowing some control in the interview process to the participants also allows the researcher to have a greater insight into the opinions, experiences and ideas of the participants (Yin, 2009). The semi-structured interviews for this research were audio recorded on a Dictaphone and the information which was received was stored on a password protected device. Participants were recruited by sending out participant information sheet to students through the DMU email and going to the DMU student union and explaining the research project to see if DMU could help identify participants. Secondary data collection refers to the collection of already existing theories, knowledge, and data in scientific literature (Hartas 2015). Academic journals, books, reports are some of the secondary data sources that were utilised for this research. Different academic databased like EBSCO, JSTOR, and Science Direct, were accessed to gain the relevant secondary data for the research.

Sampling and Sample Size

The research in this study used purposive sampling as the perspective of students who have either been in an inter-racial relationship or currently in an interracial relationship were to be investigated. Purposive sampling can be employed by the researcher to select the sample and identify participants that fit the criteria of the research (Saunders, et al., 2012). In the present study, the participants were over the age of 18 years, and had been involved in an interracial relationship at an earlier or present time. For sample size, the researcher carried out 4 semi-structured interviews with 2 females and 2 males to understand perspectives of both genders. The interviews were conducted up to 30 minutes for each participant depending on how long the participants take in answering the questions. These semi-structured interviews took place at the De Montfort University library in a syndicate room and at the participant home, at a time that was convenient to the participant .

Research Instrument

Among different and varieties of the data collection tools, this study has chosen to design and use the semi-structured interview method for the purpose of data collection. The use of interview method allows increasing representativeness from the research participants due to the flexibility involved in the method. Semi-structured interviews are appropriate when the researcher wants to provide a comfortable and flexible environment to the participants, where the participants are not bound to a rigid interview instrument (Hammer & Wildavsky, 1989). Being flexible, and allowing some control in the interview process to the participants also allows the researcher to have a greater insight into the opinions, experiences and ideas of the participants (Yin, 2009).

Data Analysis Method

To analyse qualitative data gathered from interviews, content analysis method was applied. Quinlan et al. (2019) have emphasised that content analysis method helps to address important questions from respondents' information as well as providing significant results to answer research questions. Content analysis is frequently used as a part of the positivist model, where the fundamental assumption is that there is a reality independent of the researcher and the goal, which is reflected in the text of some documents. The positivism approach to research is based on objectivism (Easterby-Smith, Thorpe, & Jackson, 2002). Therefore, in a content analysis conducted with a positivism approach, the focus is on the text itself, and not on the intentions of the person who wrote it, or the relationship of the written text with the context in which it was written, or possible reactions of the audience (Smith, 2015). The practical implementation of a text content analysis implies the existence of one or more assumptions that must be verified using information gathered from the text and for this purpose, the researcher developed some analytical categories that were used to build a text coding scheme for the purpose of content analysis.

Ethical Considerations

For the purpose of the semi-structured interviews, the interviewees were explained the purpose and nature of study clearly and only then their consent to be interviewed was sought, so as to make sure that the consent of the participants was informed in nature (Crow, 2006). A participant information form was provided with the details of the research and participants could specify their participation by signing at the back of the form. The participants were informed that they would have the option to respond to questions or not respond if they did not want to. The participants’ confidentiality was protected by not using their names when analysing data. Participants were informed that they can withdraw from the study at any time as they wished to.

Results and Discussion

In this chapter, the dissertation discusses the results of the data analysis based on the data collected from the interviews and links back the results to the theory discussed in the literature review.

Interview Results

Perception of friends and family about interracial relationship

Responding to the questions relating to how friends perceive or react to interracial relationships, the majority of the respondents responded that dating interracially does not usually receive negative responses from friends. Responses related to the questions on the attitudes of family and friends to interracial relationships, indicate that such relationships may meet with disapproval from family, especially in the very beginning of the relationship. One of the participants said “like I said they don't really see him on day to day whatever so they didn't really think of it negatively but with my family, they didn't approve of the relationship at first because he's black (Respondent No. 3)”. Therefore, it can be said that there was a kind of a ratio barrier like not to say that they are racist or anything because, in the end, they accept it. Another of the participants noted the “implications were more on the family side rather than friend's side because my family it was a big thing for them because obviously, he was entering the family with friends as you don't see them as often (Respondent No. 4)”.

Falling out the friends and family because of the interracial relationship.

The majority of the respondents believed that they had fallen out of their family because of their interracial relationship. One of the participants said that he had not fallen out with friends because of his interracial relationship, but relations with his family were strained because of it, noting that “Yeah. At the beginning it was a really big fight to stay with him I think at the start they did tell me not to like pursue the relationship they did say to leave him that I wasn't thinking straight to obviously view other options and stuff like that but so they did disagree (Respondent No. 2).”

Social surroundings and inappropriate comments

Results from the interview, indicate that interracial couples are sometimes perceived negatively in their social surroundings and consequently they are also subjected to inappropriate comments. In this regard, one of the participants said that “Myanmar has white people it has black people on his Asian people like it's so it's racially mixed and because we live in flats we don't really see people as much you know not (Respondent No)”. Therefore, it can be said that people within the community may also comment on the relationship between the partners. In this study, majority of the participants believed that the maximum discrimination faced by them came from within their extended families.

Discussion

There are three principal findings in this research study. The first is that students perspectives of interracial relationships are not negative in general, however, the attitudes of families may be more negative towards such relationships. The findings of the study based on the interviews clearly indicate that students’ perspectives to interracial relationships may differ from the perspectives of families. Linking this to the literature on interracial relationships, it may be recalled that increasing integration in schools and colleges is considered to have led to better interracial communication and by extension to lesser negative attitude to interracial relationships (Bahns, et al., 2017). As noted in the literature review, it is generally considered that an increase in the integration of races in education, entrepreneurship and social sectors, leads to an increase in the possibility of romantic interracial relationships (Zavella 2018). Therefore, there is a positive link between acceptance of interracial relationships and exposure to integrated social spaces such as schools and colleges or workplaces. Where people are not as exposed to racial integration, they may not be able to conduct interracial communications. Interracial communications are significant indicators of race relations. As literature has indicated, negative interracial communications, such as, those that involve violence between different racial groups, or feelings of animosity or anger, have the tendency to even impact racial relations in not just one country but different countries due to interracial communications travelling beyond borders (Zenovich, & Cooks, 2018). Interracial communications happen in a myriad of ways and are significant to how interracial friendships or race relations in general are formed. It may be assumed that greater exposure to racial integration in schools and colleges have allowed the current population of students in colleges to have more positive perceptions of other races and communities, which may be linked to their more positive attitudes to interracial relationships as compared to their families.

The second finding of this research is that interracial couples may be challenged in forming social bonds because their relationship may not get acceptance from their family as well as from the wider society which may include their extended families. Linking this back to the literature, it may be recalled that literature has indicated that interracial couples struggle with forging such bonds as they may not have support within their own families and communities due to their interracial marriages or relationships and consequently no common community within which such bonds can be forged (Hibbler & Shinew, 2002). Literature on social networking indicates that each individual is at the centre of a web of social bonds that combine with other similar social bonds to form the wider social bond that encompasses all individuals (Fischer, 1977). Interracial couples struggle with the forging of such bonds because they may not have support within their own communities and therefore, no common community within which such bonds can be forged (Hibbler & Shinew, 2002). Finally, is revealed that interracial couples may be subjected to discrimination and negative comments. Linking this back to the literature, it may be recalled that couples from interracial backgrounds often find themselves having to deal with racism and discrimination, not only from the community, but also from their own families, which may lead them to shun social life and not forge social bonds with members of their respective communities (Hibbler & Shinew, 2002).

Conclusion

This study was conducted to explore the attitudes of college students to interracial relationships. The analysis of the existing literature and the primary data collected for this research has led to some definitive conclusions on this point. The first conclusion that can be drawn from the primary data is that students in general do not have negative perceptions of interracial relationships. However, they are aware of the negative perceptions of their parents or extended family members with regard to interracial relationships. The second conclusion that can be drawn from this research is that students may have more positive perceptions of interracial relationships because they are more exposed to racial integration in classrooms in schools, colleges and possibly even in their increasingly multi-cultural residential neighbourhoods. Due to such exposure to different races, there is better and more positive interracial communications in the present society, which may be linked to the more positive attitudes of students to interracial relationships. Finally, it can be concluded that despite their positive attitudes to interracial relationships, students do face negative reactions to such relationships from their family and communities, although they may not face such negative reactions from their own peers. The consequence of the negative reactions, discrimination and even comments from their family members may sometimes result in the students involved in interracial relations to become distant from their families.

It may however be noted that this study has two limitations. The first limitation is that the sample size of the primary data was very small. Only 4 students could be involved in the research due to time and budgetary constraints. A bigger sample may reveal some different patterns and trends. Future study on the same question can be conducted with a bigger sample size in order to reveal different trends. The second limitation is that the study was conducted only in the qualitative research design which allows more insight into the participants’ world but where the findings may not be generalisable due to the subjective content of the data. A mixed methods research study, which combines qualitative with quantitative methods may be able to provide more insight as well as reliable data and data analysis methods to come to more generalisable findings. Future research can be conducted in the same area of research but with a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods.

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