Tourism has been lauded as one of the best means through which a country can boost a country’s GDP. McCarthy (2018) notes that tourism affects the GDP of a country because of the various positive impacts that it has on a state. Tourism leads to the creation of jobs at a community level which improves the lives of the people of the country (McCarthy 2018). Tourists provide a tremendous economic advantage to the state because they spend money within the country. By spending money within the country, they put more disposable income into the hands of local people. Since local people have more disposable income in their pockets, they spend the money on accessing better education, healthcare, and overall better lives. Moreover, if one of a country’s great GDP boosters is the tourism, they tend to invest in infrastructure, better social amenities, better security and various other factors that will lead to a boost in tourism (Kumar, Hussain, and Kannan 2015). When tourists visit the island, there is an upsurge in the economy since the tourists spend money on various things in the economy (Kumar, Hussain, and Kannan 2015).
Hotels will be booked; tour guides will be hired, money will be spent on various memorabilia and foodstuffs and many other things. Therefore, the more tourism the country experiences, the more the economy will grow. On the other hand, if tourism is one of the critical earners of a country, then when tourism slows down, the economy of the country will also slow down (Kumar, Hussain, and Kannan 2015). The effects that tourism has on a state are also sociocultural, as well as economic. One sociocultural impact is that people of the island have gotten to interact with people from diverse cultures. Tourists are usually not locals, but people from other countries. People from other countries come from different cultures, and they tend to rub off the culture on the people of the country. Another socio-cultural impact is that some cultural ideals from tourists may rub off on the locals and this may lead to the erosion of their culture. Therefore, tourism has excellent benefits for a country, its economy, and its people.
Conversely, while tourism has been noted to have many positive impacts on the economy, it has also been pointed out that mass tourism has effects on the environment as well. The effects that mass tourism has on the environment is chiefly adverse. Sayeda (2017) indicates that mass tourism has adverse environmental impacts that affect the nation being visited in a very harmful manner. The purpose of this study will be to explore mass tourism and the ecological effects it has on South East Asian Islands. The specific islands that will be concentrated on are Maya Bay and Boracay. These two islands were selected because they are some of the worst affected islands which have led to them being shut down for a while due to the adverse negative environmental effects generated by mass tourism. There are two specific aims of the study. The first aim is to explore whether a lack of infrastructure leads to unsustainable tourism in the small islands in the South East of Asia. The infrastructure that will be examined in relation to the first aim will revolve around transportation, sewage systems, various social amenities, and investment. The second aim is to find out which internal and external factors influence the Maya Bay and Boracay islands to close down for an extended period of time. The elements that will be explored in relation to the second aim will revolve around pollution, littering, destruction to the environment such as corals and wildlife habitats and various cultural issues. The issues identified in this study are important since they will show that mass tourism is unsustainable in the long run and that measures need to be put in place to curb mass tourism. A literature review shall be carried out, and various recommendations shall be made in relation to the issue of mass tourism.
Before exploring the contributory factors that affect the islands, it is essential to set the context. The two islands being investigated in this study are Maya Bay and Boracay. Boracay is a tiny island off the shore of the Philippines. In the 1990s only one million tourists visited the Philippines, but as of 2017, the country experienced 6.6 million tourists of which 2.2 million of them visited Boracay (Morris 2018). The island measures 3.98 square miles and has a resident population of around 30,000 people (Morris 2018). There has been a significant influx of visitors to the island which has led to an enormous strain on the island’s resources and considerable environmental degradation. The Philippines has more than 7,000 islands which tourists can visit, but they choose to visit Boracay because it is considered one of the most idyllic places to visit (McKirdy 2018). Due to that, there has been a significant influx of tourism over the years, and that has affected the island detrimentally. Morris (2018) notes that due to the mass tourism that the island has experienced, social amenities have been strained to the maximum and environmental degradation has increased. The deterioration of the island has grown so much that the government of the Philippines decided to close down the island for a while to allow for corrective actions. Morris (2018) continues to observe that once the island was closed for restoration more than 800 environmental violations; the rubbish generated per person was found to be three times higher than for other cities. The effects of mass tourism led to the closure of the island, and that shows that mass tourism is unfeasible in the long run. The issue is not the locals but the high number of tourists that flood the island, especially during summer months. McKirdy (2018) posits the question of whether the island is ready to be opened when it has been exposed to that much degradation. If the island is opened, it is possible that it may go back to its previous condition unless measures are put in place to curb mass tourism.
Maya Bay is another island in the South East that has been exposed to the vagaries of mass tourism. Maya Bay is an island that is located in Thailand. The beach was made famous after Leonardo DiCaprio filmed the motion picture known as The Beach (Godfrey 2018). Since the filming of that film, there has been an influx of tourists every year to the extent where it has become unfeasible to maintain such high numbers. Godfrey (2018) notes that approximately 2,5 million visitors head to Ko Phi Phi each year and it contributes to 12% of the economy. Additionally, the island experiences around 5,000 visitors who come to the island on boat tours and that has contributed heavily to the mass tourism that the island has experienced. Due to the high number of tourists that the island has received, The Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT) has issued a statement stating that the island will be closed off to visitors for 4 months to allow for rehabilitation (Godfrey 2018). Ellis-Petersen (2018) notes that the Thailand tourism authority argues that it is the people who visit the island on boat trips that has led to vast degradation of the island’s eco-system. It is estimated that due to the pollution happening around Maya Bay more than 80% of the coral around the beach has been destroyed (Ellis-Petersen 2018). The Thailand authority was reluctant to shut down the beach because it contributes £9.5 million in revenue every year (Ellis-Petersen 2018). Whilst it contributes such a high amount to the economy, keeping the beach open has led to long-term degradation which may rob the government of the revenue that it continually seeks. The continued deterioration is what prompted the Thailand government to shut down the beach so that they could rehabilitate it. However, a number of environmentalists have argued that closing the beach for only four months is not enough to restore the destroyed coral and restore the eco-system (Gizauskas 2018). For adequate restoration of the beach to take place, it would need to be shut down for at least the year or two years (Gizauskas 2018). Therefore, just as Boracay, Maya Beach has also experienced adverse effects from Mass Tourism and if proper measures are not put in place, environmental degradation will continue to take place.
Mass tourism continues due to lack of government intervention; it is because governments continue to allow visitors in their countries that environmental degradation of pristine beaches and islands continues to happen. Becker (2017) notes that current policies set by the governments experiencing mass tourism are the ones that continue to encourage mass tourism in a region. The systems that exist in tourism hotspots tend to promote more tourism rather than finding ways to stem the tide. The policies set in place support the building of more resorts, access to cruise ships, exposure of local culture some of which is considered to be sacred and various other policies that encourage more tourism into their city (Becker 2017). It is understandable why countries would encourage more tourism to their countries especially in seasons when tourism increases. Any individual would want to maximize avenues of revenue rather than stemming the tide of income, and it is the same with countries, they seek to maximize their revenue streams. It should be noted that May Bay and Boracay exist in countries that are considered to be Third-World and to some extent emerging markets (Becker 2017). As such, such countries seek to maximize their revenues for developmental purposes. Therefore, mass tourism seems to be encouraged by government policies. In Boracay and Maya Bay, the governments of the respective countries have decided to close down the beaches to slow down environmental degradation, and that shows the appropriate role government policies and oversight play in allowing or stemming mass tourism.
A theoretical framework refers to an assortment of related concepts or hypotheses. Theoretical frameworks are essential in research since they help in guiding the process and they determine the factors that the researcher will measure and the means through which the researcher will measure those concepts. The purpose of those theories is to explain and predict. Furthermore, it helps in understanding the researched material in a more holistic manner. Since research cannot be explained by only one theory, it is essential to use a number of approaches that will address different sets of variables. For the purposes of this research, two theories were selected, the Person-in-Environment Theory and Systems Theory.
The basic definition of this theory is that it aims to improve the lives of members within a community. According to Dybicz (2015), an individual or different groups of individuals, act within their given environments and they form interactive systems that affect all components at the same time. In this study, it relates to the interaction between tourists and the environment that they visit. Tourists influence the environment that they visit, and they are also affected by the environment that they visit. The theory reinforces the fact that to understand the situation in a better and more holistic manner both the individual and the environment need to be studied at the same time. It further augments the fact that no single component exists in isolation and that changes in one of the elements have ripple effects to other parts of the ecosystem. Therefore, the person-in-environment theory will help explain how tourism leads to environmental pollution and how that pollution also affects the tourists that have led to pollution. In the context of the study, the individual(s) are the tourists and the environment is Maya Bay and Boracay. It is essential to understand the relationship that exists between the individual and the environment since it will influence future policies relating to environmental protection.
Systems Theory is also fundamental in understanding the variables within the study. According to Healy (2014), systems theory maintains that individuals do not operate in isolation but that they work within more critical systems and networks. The extensive systems of interfaces may be informal, formal, public or private. The theory also argues that for changes to occur then one has to change the whole system. Moreover, since all variables are interconnected, changing one variable for the better will have positive ripple effects on the entire system. The advantage of this theoretical framework is that its primary focus is on the environment rather than the individual. The theory focuses on the environment since it is more receptive to change as compared to individuals due to greater flexibility (Health 2014). Additionally, this theory does not focus on causal relationships but focuses on patterns. Focusing on trends acts as a guide that will lead to an understanding of different outcomes. However, focusing on patterns is also the critical weakness of the theory because pollution is based on a causal relationship. Systems theory will help in understanding pollution from a systemic point of view, and that will improve holistic understanding of the issue.
The study was a qualitative one. A quantitative approach was considered, but it was found that it would require primary research due to a lack of available figures that could be analyzed statistically. Due to that fundamental limitation, a qualitative methodology was selected as the primary methodology. A qualitative approach was chosen since it will allow for a synthesis of the current and available literature. Secondary research was selected, and it helped meet the aims of the study since it helps in conducting an exploratory search of the effects that mass tourism has on the environment. Moreover, secondary research aided in identifying, evaluating and summarizing all the relevant studies that were selected which will help in making the information more accessible to the appropriate key decision makers. Due to the range of research, narrative and thematic analysis of the literature was carried out. Narrative analysis was selected as a means of evaluation due to the relatively high number of literature chosen for review, and it helped in reducing the literature to a manageable portion. Furthermore, the narrative analysis was selected because it is more flexible as compared to thematic analysis. Thematic analysis was selected because it helped in arranging the data into various themes for greater understanding. Additionally, thematic analysis was chosen because it helped to identify the commonalities across the selected literature.
The primary search engine that was applied is the library search engine. Google was also employed as another search engine. Most of the references that were retrieved from an online source were accessed by using Google as a search engine. There was no specific time period set for the search since some of the materials obtained are relatively old. Not setting a particular time within which the literature was published allowed for a wider pool from which research could be selected. However, more recent publications were given greater precedence because more recent publications consider more current information which helps explore contemporary nuances revolving around the issue. The two search engines were utilized by using a combination of critical terms and keywords. The words that were selected revolved around the title of the paper and key aims. The key terms and keywords used were: (i) mass tourism, tourism, visitors from other countries; (ii) impacts of mass tourism, environmental impacts of tourism, increase in tourism; (iii) Maya Bay, Boracay, islands in the South East of Asia; (iii) infrastructure, transportation, sewage systems, investment in tourism hotspots; (iv) pollution, littering, environmental damages, cultural issues; (v) recommendations to deal with environmental damage, implications of ecological damage. Literature with any of the key terms was selected and determined whether they fit the inclusion criteria.
Relating to the inclusion criteria the following types of studies were selected: investigations into mass tourism; studies that showed the factors that led to the increase in mass tourism; current policies that encourage mass tourism; environmental impacts of tourism in South East Islands; impacts of mass tourism on a country’s economy and culture; qualitative and quantitative studies; studies published in peer-reviewed journals, online newspapers, and reviews posted on various accredited websites. In terms of language, all studies that were selected were written in English to help in comprehension.
Relating to the exclusion criteria, the following types of studies were excluded: investigations that focused on tourism from a governmental and theoretical perspective; investigations where it was not possible to distinguish the impacts of mass tourism; investigations that observed the issue from an economic perspective; studies that did not sit within the set inclusion criteria; non-peer reviewed studies, any form of conference proceedings, blogs and various review and comment articles or websites such as trip advisor; Wikipedia and various unaccredited sites; investigations not written in the English language. The selected literature was evaluated two or three times to ensure that they met the inclusion criteria. After a second and third evaluation, some studies were excluded from the literature review. Parts of the studies that were reviewed to ensure they met the inclusion criteria were the abstract, methodology section, conclusion and implications for future research. Reviewing those specific parts of the study helped in condensing the investigation into a manageable portion.
The literature review section will be arranged based on the common themes that were noted in the various selected literature. The themes are not organized based on chronology or the most common themes, but they are arranged in an arbitrary manner.
Mass tourism has developed over a number of years into the behemoth that it has become over the years. Yolal and Sezgin (2012) note that the term mass tourism is used to refer to groups of people who travel together with the same purposes and usually guided by tourism professionals. Currently, the term is used to mean the influx of tourists within a given region during tourist season. Therefore, when the term mass tourism is stated, the first thing that many people think about is people visiting other countries more so during the summer months when people prefer to travel. Heinrich (2018) observes that after the industrial age, traveling became easier for many individuals. People had more disposable income in their pockets, and they decided that they wanted to spend the money on leisure activities (Akis 2011). The increase in the amount of disposable income that people have happened as means of transportation became faster and easier to access. Travel periods that would have typically taken weeks could now occur in a number of hours. The other factors that contributed to tourism are salaried holidays, increased prosperity, promotions by governments, opportunities for investors, inclusive tours, mass marketing and mass production of goods and services (Yolal and Sezgin 2012). The key contributory factor would be the growth of computing technology. In the early years of mass tourism, computer technology was still budding and was used for planning and delivering the final service. In modern times, computers and the internet are basically at the center of tourism since everything revolves around them. Therefore, the growth of computers and the internet were contributory factors to mass tourism.
There were a number of lifestyle and work-related changes that influenced the growth of mass tourism. Heinrich (2018) notes that some of the changes are continued growth and interest in other cultures and the improved health among people that have retired. People find themselves retired, with money and with good health and rather than sit at home; they decide to travel to other countries and experience different cultures and cuisines. Some other factors that have contributed to the continued growth of mass tourism are improvements in communication, growth in tourism service delivery, and further technological changes (Yolal and Sezgin 2012). It has gotten easier for people to make bookings to different countries, to access flights, hotels, and other travel plans. Moreover, the growth of companies that are specifically dedicated to delivering tourism services has also influenced the growth of mass tourism. Heinrich (2018) notes that the number of international travelers in the 1980s was 278.1 million and as of 2011, the number had increased to 687.8 million which is more than 200% increase. The birth of online bookings and low-cost airlines has contributed to the growth and development of mass tourism. Mass tourism has provoked a number of environmental impacts that shall be discussed in the subsequent chapters.
The viability of any tourist destination is ultimately dependent on water supply in terms of both quality and quantity. One of the critical issues noted in the reviewed literature is that mass tourism leads to the pollution of water. According to Aljohani (2018), water is one of the key resources that is profoundly affected due to the presence of a high number of tourists. The tourism industry requires a lot of water for swimming, golf courses, hotels, personal use, and many other uses. Due to the high level of water usage, it is likely that the water sources at a given area may be depleted or be polluted in one way or another. The issue is compounded when the influx of tourism occurs in hot regions such as the Mediterranean (Aljohani 2018). Warm weather makes tourists consume more water which may result in depletion. Tourist destinations tend to be given higher priority at the expense of the local population which in turn affects them in a negative manner. The water that is directed to tourist spots is needed by residents of the area to carry out irrigation, use for various domestic applications and various other water uses that may be unique to the region (Aljohani 2018).
The issue not only revolves around depleting the sources of water but also reducing the quality of water revolving around a region. According to Baoying and Yuanqing (2007), while water depletion does happen in some tourist regions, one of the key things that occur across all areas is the reduction of water quality. Water quality reduces because of the influx of tourists and water that was meant for locals is shared by many other visitors that were not accounted for. The management measures put in place to curb any water pollution issues are not sufficient more so because the number of tourist-targeted businesses continues to grow and to increase. More shops, restaurants, hotels, resorts, and various other tourist-targeted service providers continue to grow, and that raises the water needs of a tourist destination. Suniu (2003) notes that one of the essential amenities that lead to the depletion of water sources and reduction in water quality is golf courses. Golf courses require a lot of water to maintain which leads to water depletion and water quality. According to Suniu (2003), if the water for maintaining a golf course is being drawn from wells, it may lead to over-pumping which may then cause saline intrusion into groundwater making it harder to drink. The excessive extraction of water will also reduce the amount of water that is available for the local population to use. Therefore, mass tourism leads to a reduction in the quality and quantity of water.
There is also a massive dissonance between the amount of water that tourists use and the amount of water that the locals use. According to Sayeda (2017), tourist water consumption is usually two to three times more than that of locals in developed countries and up to 15 times more in developing countries. Locals tend to utilize around 14 liters of water per person per day and tourists tend to utilize around 100-300 liters of water per person per day (Sayeda 2017). Usually, water consumption will depend on tourist location. Golf courses tend to use the most water, followed by resorts, and then followed by different types of lodgings such as hotels, with campsites using the least amount of water (Sayeda 2017). The irony is that the high level of water consumption by tourists tends to lead to water scarcity for some of the locals. Sayeda (2017) continues to note that some areas tend to rely on groundwater for their utilization. Mass tourism stretches the amount of water extracted from the ground, and that has adverse effects on the water quality that locals can access. Moreover, a high level of extraction has led to salination of some groundwater area which has had an adverse impact on water quality. Therefore, mass tourism affects the quality and quantity of water in a given area.
Among the many environmental impacts of mass tourism, the one that is considered to have the most significant effect is the reduction in the sea/ocean quality. The presence of many people in a coastal region is bound to affect the quality of the ocean. According to Aljohani (2018), sea pollution is a significant issue because of the ripple effects that it carries. If sea quality is affected, it may lead to serious health complications for the sea organisms and the human beings that swim in the ocean. GhulamRabbany et al. (2013), mass tourism affect the sea quality because of the increased use of boats and various means of water transport, the increase of recreational activities at the beach and the strain that tourism has on other infrastructure. Boats usually use carbon-based fuels, and the byproducts of those carbon-based fuels tend to pollute the ocean thus reducing its quality. Additionally, there is an immediate relationship between an increase in tourists and an increase in garbage. Some tourists tend to dump things like plastic bottles and various other waste into the ocean. Dumping the trash into the sea affects ocean quality and will have ripple effects in the sense that it changes the biodiversity in the sea as well as disrupting the ecosystems.
It is not only dumping garbage into the ocean that exacerbates the issue but the various actions that are undertaken to ensure that tourists have a good time. According to GhulamRabbany et al. (2013), some coastal regions install breakwaters which affect the normal functioning of the coastal line and also has adverse effects on the marine environment. Furthermore, some resorts are built near the ocean and these adverse effects on the sea more so during the building process. A lot of dirt is extracted during that process, and many pollutants are dumped into the sea. Additionally, some shorelines are chronically overbuilt which has adverse effects on the marine life According to GhulamRabbany et al. (2013) there is evidence to suggest a correlation between the number of buildings along the shoreline and the level of pollution within a given area. Basically, the more buildings that coastline has, the higher the pollution levels. Conversely, the lower the number of buildings along the shoreline the lower the pollution levels of a given area. Also, when buildings are being erected along the shoreline, they do not take into account the natural topography of the land, this lack of consideration of the natural topography of the land leads to the destruction of natural and picturesque views. As such, it is essential that land planning is accounted for when building along the shoreline.
One of the pertinent issues that make people contest mass tourism is the effect that it has on marine life, marine biodiversity, and aquatic ecosystems. According to Tapper (1998), there has been a considerable increase in “reef-based” tourism where people snorkel or scuba dives to see the coastal reefs under the ocean. However, this high degree of human contact has disrupted the ecosystems within those reefs, and that has had negative effects on the marine life within those regions. Sayeda (2017) also notes that mass tourism has adverse effects on marine ecosystems more so in relation to increased damage to coral reefs. There is careless motorboat driving around the corals, there is increased fishing and diving, and that has led to the death of many marine organisms. Sayeda (2017) continues to note that one of the vital marine creatures that have been affected is the turtles. Turtles come from the ocean and lay their eggs on the beach before returning back to the ocean. Mass tourism has affected turtle nesting sites since some of those tourists spend time on beaches where the turtles lay their eggs. Affecting the turtle’s nesting site is a big issue more so because marine turtles are considered to be an endangered species (Sayeda 2017). Therefore, if the turtles cannot propagate their species, then it is more likely that they will die out due to human involvement. Additionally, mass tourism leads to increased consumption of seafood within a given coastal area. The increased desire for seafood will put a strain on the local fish population since it will encourage overfishing within a given area (Sayeda 2017).
Marine life is also affected by increased sewage discharge. According to Reopanichkul et al. (2010), there is an inverse relationship within the number of tourists within a given region and the sewage discharged into the ocean. The higher the number of tourists within a given region the higher the sewage discharge levels. Conversely, the lower the number of tourists within a given area the lower the sewage discharge levels. Reopanichkul et al. (2018) carried out research on three ocean regions around Phuket, Thailand. The first region was close to an area that experiences mass tourism, the second area was moderately close to an area that is visited by tourists, and the third area was an area that was rarely visited by tourists. The researchers found that the further away an area was from mass tourism the better the water and reef quality and the better the marine biodiversity within that given area (Reopanichkul et al. 2010). The critical factor in the study was that the closer a region was to mass tourism the higher the wastewater that was discharged within that given area. Furthermore, the detrimental effects of the sewage that was discharged were not localized within a given area but were carried to other regions by water currents (Reopanichkul et al. 2010). The area of effect increased during the wet season. Therefore, mass tourism leads to more waste discharge into the ocean which then has a detrimental impact on marine biodiversity and ecosystems.
Tourism plays a role in reducing air quality due to the modes of transport that are utilized during the tourist season. During the holidays and summer, very many people want to tour the world. As such, they will use modes of transport in the form of cruise ships, airplanes, boats, and local modes of transportation of the places they are visiting. This increase in the use of means of transport not only destroys the environment of the visited sites but it also contributes to global warming. The modes of transport use emit greenhouse gases which increase the amount of heat trapped on the earth’s surface, and that contributes to global warming in the long-run. According to Briassoulis and Van der Straaten (2013), air quality is affected by mass tourism due to the high travel volume. There is an increase in rail, air, road and water travel which has adverse effects on air quality. The issue lies with increasing carbon particles in the air which in turn pollute local environments thus lowering the air quality of areas. Aljohani (2018) observes that in hot regions, tourists tend to leave their vehicles running for a long time which is meant to make the car more comfortable, but it leads to more air pollution. GhullamTabbany et al. (2013) note that on land it is automobiles which are responsible for the highest level of pollution with an accumulative 26 million tons of carbon particles being released into the air. Comparatively, ships release 7 million tons of carbon particles. Mass tourism leads to an influx in the number of automobiles used for travel, and that increases the number of carbon particles released into the air (GhullamTabbany et al. 2013). Air transport also contributes heavily to the reduction in air quality. Aljohani (2018) notes that 60% of air travel is related to tourism activities. Airplanes require a lot of fuel for them to complete a successful trip. Therefore, in relation to tourism activities, it is airplanes which contribute to the highest amount of pollution.
A critical factor that determines the feasibility of and sustainability of tourism is the availability of infrastructure and how well they can be maintained over the long term. According to Akis (2011), one of the key infrastructures that are affected by tourism is solid waste management. Aljohani (2018) notes that tourism encourages the construction of a considerable number of facilities that will cater to the tourists. However, the issue is that the rise of the significant number of facilities does not lead to a commensurate increase in waste management. That translates into busted sewage pipes being seen in some tourist areas which affects the local population. At the same time, some facilities choose to empty their waste into the ocean rather than concentrating on improving ways through which waste can be managed. According to Reopanichkul et al. (2010), note that in areas plagued by mass tourism, there are numerous sewage outfalls that are usually discharged into the ocean rather than into properly managed systems. Therefore, issues with the sewage system abound in areas that experience mass tourism.
The other issue that abounds in areas prone to mass tourism is transportation issues. Akis (2011) observes that during high tourist seasons the transportation systems within a country are stretched immensely. The transportation systems are stretched immensely because they were not built with such high populations in mind. When tourists visit a country, there is a great influx of individuals within the area, and that has detrimental effects on the area. Wang et al. (2010) report that mass tourism results in overcrowding and traffic congestion. Moreover, locals find that they cannot perform some activities that they are used to performing because they cannot access some public spaces (Wang et al. 2010). Wang et al. (2010) also noted that locals within an area prone to mass tourism tend to dial back on their activities since they know that it will be a challenge to perform those activities. A lot of time is spent in traffic jams, and at the same time, public spaces that would usually be occupied by locals are filled by many tourists. The issue is compounded on prime beach fronts such as Maya Bay and Boracay where the areas are populated by so many tourists that it is unfeasible for any individual to go to the beach (McKirdy 2018). Additionally, there are also a lot of boats in the water thus traffic congestion is not only experienced in on the roads but also in the sea (Akis 2011). Therefore, transport systems are stretched due to mass tourism.
The reviewed literature shows that mass tourism has adverse environmental effects on a region. The positive effects associated with mass tourism relate to economic gain. Tourists spend a lot of money in an area, and that money is injected into the economy in one way or another. Moreover, locals involved in tourism will have the more disposable income to spend on securing better lives for themselves and for their progeny. However, in relation to environmental impacts, it seems that tourists only contribute negatively to the environment. The reviewed literature adhered to the theoretical perspectives that were suggested for the study. It showed that there is a causal relationship between mass tourism and pollution and that was addressed by the person-in-environment theory. It also showed that pollution is systematic and that was addressed by the systems theory. The study met the first aim in the sense that it showed that mass tourism could not be sustained for a long time due to lack of proper infrastructure. The study met the second aim since it explained the reasons why islands like Maya Bay and Boracay need to be shut down from time to time for recuperative purposes.
In the literature, it was noted that the detrimental adverse effects that arise from tourism do not happen once, but they are cumulative. The cumulative impact affects the locals of the region more so the environment. One of the critical issues that were identified in the literature is the issue of accessibility to water. The literature noted that in developing countries, tourist’s consumption of water is 15 times more than that of locals. Since Maya Bay and Boracay are under areas which can be designated as developing, it can be surmised that tourists consume more water than the locals by far. Boracay has a local population of 30,000 people, and it got around 2.2 million visitors in 2017. Therefore, one can easily conclude that tourists consumed more water than the locals. The same can be said for Maya Bay, and it can be surmised that the tourists consumed more water than the locals. Since tourist water consumption is very high locals have a harder time accessing water since priority is given to the tourists. Moreover, the quality and quantity of water reduce drastically to the peril of the local population. Therefore, water quality in Boracay and Maya Bay is affected by mass tourism, and it causes detrimental environmental effects on the islands.
The other key issue identified in the literature is the issue of sea quality. Boracay and Maya Bay are islands with pristine beaches, and that is part of their appeal. However, due to mass tourism, the sea quality around the beaches has been affected. Part of the issue is the high level of littering and the garbage that is cast into the sea by the tourists. Some of the trash will affect marine biodiversity and ecosystems. Additionally, since the islands can only be accessed by boats which use carbon-based fuels whose by-products affect the ocean. Moreover, drilling around the beaches and also building around that same area has effects on ocean quality. The ocean quality is also affected by the sewage disposals being emptied into the sea. The higher the number of buildings built along the shoreline the higher the levels of pollution in the coastline surrounding those buildings. It is not only sea quality that is affected but also air quality. The literature noted that air quality is reduced due to the high travel volume that occurs during tourist season. There is an increase in the road, air, train and water travel. In an of itself, it is not the travel that is the issue rather the byproducts of the means of travel. All modes of travel using fossil-based fuels whose byproduct leads to an increase in the carbon particles in the air which then reduce the air quality. During the summer months, the number of carbon particles in the air increases due to the rise in the travel volume. In Maya Bay and Boracay, the key means of accessing the islands is through boat travel. Boats also used carbon-based fuels, and the carbon that they release into the air not only affects the sea quality but the air quality as well. Furthermore, there is an increase in noise pollution. Boats are generally very noisy since their engines are not muffled. Mass tourism leads to the rise in the number of motorboats that approach the island and that increases the level of noise pollution around the island.
The literature also noted that marine ecology, biodiversity, and ecosystems are affected by mass tourism. While tourists played a direct role in the issue, it was the events that encourage tourism that seemed to contribute the most. In Maya Bay and Boracay, tourists have played a direct role in affecting marine life in relation to throwing garbage into the ocean. The garbage that has been tossed in the ocean becomes a foreign element in the marine ecosystem which has detrimental effects on sea life. Moreover, some of the marine life may eat the garbage that has been thrown into the sea, and it may cause them health problems which may lead to their death. Additionally, tourists have also disrupted the hatching grounds of turtles on the beach. As revealed in the literature review section, turtles use the beaches as their nesting grounds. They come onto the beach, lay their eggs and cover them, and then they go back into the sea. However, their nesting grounds are being affected by mass tourism since many tourists go to Maya Bay and to Boracay to spend time on the pristine beaches. The other factors not caused directly by tourists but which still contribute to the issue is a high demand for seafood. During high tourist seasons, there is a relatively higher demand for seafood as compared to other times in the year. As such, there is chronic over-fishing which does not give the fish enough time for them to repopulate. The number of fish and various other edible animals such as prawns reduces drastically, and that has a detrimental effect on the marine ecosystem. Furthermore, the sewage that is dumped into the ocean also has a harmful impact on marine biodiversity. Therefore, marine life around Maya Bay and Boracay has been adversely affected.
Due to the above factors, the two islands have been closed down for recuperative reasons. One of the critical issues is pollution and littering. It is not surprising that there is a commensurate increase in the amount of garbage on the islands in relation to the number of tourists. In and of itself, the garbage is not an issue; it is the detrimental effects that the garbage has on the island, its people, and the animals in the sea. Animals in the sea are dying at faster rates due to the trash, and the people of the islands are also affected too. Moreover, the sewage systems of both islands were not made to cater to that many people. As stated, Boracay has only 30,000 people. The sewage system on the island was created with 30,000 people in mind. Therefore, when more than 2.2 million visit the island, it is likely to put a strain on the sewage system. Part of the reason why Maya Bay was closed down is that a viral video showed a burst sewage pipe spewing its contents on the street. The issue may not be the quality of the sewage system but the capacity of the sewage system. Since capacity has been exceeded it is inevitable that the system will break down.
The capacity of the transport system has also been strained to its limit. The transport systems of both islands were created with the residents in mind; therefore, when there is an influx of people, the system is also stretched immensely. It leads to congestion of people and to colossal traffic jams. Additionally, there is also a cultural element in the sense that tourism leads to erosion of culture. Tourism plays a role in the destruction of the culture of visited places. Tourism usually involves visiting culturally significant sites such as temples, historical places, and seeing other cultural attractions such as traditional dances. Some of the cultural attractions that are visited are considered sacred, but tourism does not treat it with the reverence that the people of the land treat it. Moreover, some of the traditional dances that are enjoyed by tourists as a way of immersing themselves in culture are also considered to be sacred. Some of those dances were only performed during special occasions yet due to tourism they have been trivialized and made to look cheap since they are performed all the time. Additionally, tourists come with their culture, and some aspects of that culture may corrupt the culture of the area. For example, during tourist season there is an increase in sexual promiscuity between the tourists and the people of their destination. Prior to tourism, such things may not have been happening, but due to tourism they begin to happen and affect the culture of the area in a negative manner. Therefore, there is a cultural element that must be considered as much as the environmental impact of Boracay and Maya Bay.
Since it has been established that mass tourism has detrimental environmental effects on Maya Bay and Bora Cay, it is important to make recommendations that may help in solving or mitigating ecological issues. The first recommendation is based on what has already been done, and that is the islands should be closed down from time to time. The current closure of the islands was informed by the fact that things got out of hand. The marine life around the islands was adversely affected, and sewage and transport systems were already stretched to capacity. The closure being recommended is both mitigatory and recuperative. The closure is mitigatory in the sense that the damage has already been done thus rather than causing further damage the islands should be closed down for some time. Currently, the islands have been closed down for around four months. However, as revealed in the background section may environmentalists believe that the islands should be closed for at least one year, but it will be better if the island is closed for two years. Therefore, it is recommended that the islands be closed down for two years. The closure of the islands is recuperative in the sense that it will give the marine life around the area time to recover from the detrimental environmental effects caused by mass tourism. According to Gizauskas (2018) since the closure of Maya Bay the quantity of sharks around the area has increased. The shutdown happened for only four months; therefore, one can argue that if the shutdown occurred for more than four months, there would be more significant positive effects. Once the islands have recovered, they can be opened during high tourist season and shut down for a number of months every year or every two years. Shutting down the islands every couple of months will protect them from chronic mass tourism.
The other recommendation is that governments should strive to improve the capacity of current systems by accounting for the influx of tourists. A critical issue that was noted and one that needs to be addressed is the issue of sewage systems. Part of the reason why Maya Bay was shut down is that a video was released that showed a burst sewage pipe spewing contents on the road. The governments need to find ways through which they can increase the capacity of the current sewage systems. Improving the ability of current sewage systems will also ensure that the waste is not dumped into the ocean as was seen in some cases. Improving the sewage system may include but is not limited to laying down more pipes to carry the waste, expanding current waste management plants or building new ones to help lighten the load off current ones, and setting up plants that can recycle the waste which can then be used for other purposes. In terms of transportation, road capacity has to be improved. In relation to the boats, the issue is not the capacity of the sea since the sea is big enough to accommodate all the ships. The problem lies in the number of vessels accessing the islands. As such, the number of vessels accessing the islands from the sea can be limited to a specific number. Once that number has been reached the other boats can access the island another time or when one of the other ships leave. That will ensure that the number of boats that access the island are few who will then reduce the number of people on the beaches at any given time.
In terms of high demand for seafood, policies should be put in place that takes discourage overfishing. The government can set policies that hinder commercial fishing during some a number of months in the year or within a specific region. In those months or in that particular region, fish and other marine animals will be able to replenish their numbers which will in turn help in solving the issue of chronic overfishing. Additionally, the governments should have policies that guide building along the shoreline. The policies should set restrictions on the number of beachfront resorts that can be built. Moreover, during the construction phase, the policies on waste and noise management should be followed. Also, resorts of hotels that have been built on the shoreline should be expected to adhere to the strictest standards of waste management. If the hotel or the resort does not adhere to those standards, punitive actions such as hefty fines should be put in place to discourage others from doing the same. Since another critical issue that was noted is waste management, governments should come up with feasible ways through which waste can be managed. Additionally, it will be essential to come up with means through which the ocean water around Maya Bay and Boracay can be cleaned. The initiative should include local people to ensure that it is sustainable. The above recommendations will help in mitigating the current environmental effects caused by tourism and help in ensuring that it does not happen again.
The key weakness of the study is that it used secondary research materials. In a sense, the research was a synthesis of current information on the issue rather than primary research concerning the matter. Second, the study took a qualitative approach. A quantitative approach may have presented a better view on the issue partly because it would involve statistical analysis of the information. Third, only one researcher was involved in this study due to financial constraints. Therefore, an element of researcher bias may inform the research which may reduce the objectivity of the study. Fourth, time was also a key limitation of the study. Taking into consideration the vastness of the study, more time would have been beneficial in carrying out greater holistic research. The last limitation is that the study was focused on islands in the South East of Asia, specifically Maya Bay and Boracay. In terms of future research, it can concentrate on whether the same environmental effects experienced on islands apply to the mainland. Future research can also focus on other impacts such as cultural impacts, economic impacts, and different kinds of impact that mass tourism may have on an area. Additionally, future research may focus on citizen perceptions of mass tourism and the effects that it has on their lives.
Boracay is a tiny island off the shore of the Philippines. In 2017, the island was visited by around 2.2 million tourists. Putting that in context, the island has only 30,000 local inhabitants. Therefore, the number of visitors per year outnumber the locals by more than a thousand percent. Maya Bay is another island in the South East that has been exposed to the vagaries of mass tourism. Maya Bay is an island that is located in Thailand. The beach was made famous after Leonardo DiCaprio filmed the motion picture known as The Beach. Both islands have experienced mass tourism. Mass tourism refers to groups of people who travel together with the same purposes and usually guided by tourism professionals. Currently, the term is used to mean the influx of tourists within a given region during tourist season. Mass tourism in the context of this study was based on the second definition where there is an influx of people within a given area during particular seasons. Mass tourism has positive economic effects. The tourists spend money in the country, and the money is injected into the economy. The locals also have more disposable income in their pockets which allows them to live better lives.
Environmentally, mass tourism only has adverse and detrimental effects. It leads to a reduction in the quality and quantity of water. Tourists use more water than locals, and they also receive first priority when accessing water. This leaves the locals without enough water for their own domestic use. Mass tourism affects the quality of the ocean. Tourists increase the garbage that is dumped into the sea which leads to pollution. Also, when resorts and various tourist amenities are being built the construction process has also been known to lead to more pollution in the ocean. Mass tourism reduces air quality in the sense that it increases travel volume. All the modes of travel use carbon-based fuels whose byproduct releases carbon particles into the air. The increased carbon particles reduce air quality around the islands. There is also increased noise pollution.
Mass tourism affects marine life. Mass tourism leads to an increase in the amount of garbage in the ocean, it increases the amount of sewage dumped into the sea, and it also increases the demand for seafood which in turn leads to overfishing. Mass tourism also puts a strain on current systems such as the sewage and transport systems. The sewage and transport systems on the islands were built with the locals in kind; thus they did not account for tourism. In terms of recommendations, it is recommended that Maya Bay and Boracay be shut down for one or two years to allow the island to recover and also to mitigate the adverse environmental effects. Second, the capacity of the sewage and transport systems should also be expanded with tourists in mind. Third, the policies should be put in place that will discourage overfishing. In the end, the research showed that mass tourism has detrimental environmental impacts on South East Asian Islands more so May Bay and Bora Cay.
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