Impact of Color on Reading for Dyslexia

Chapter 1 Introduction

The purpose of this research is to investigate how colour overlays can influence the reading experience on technological devices for people with Dyslexia or Visual Stress. Does it have an impact on their reading ability and text understanding? Does colour have any bearing or influence on the interpretation and the user’s ability to retain information using these devices? The dissertation discusses what is know about the reading experiences of people with Dyslexia and Visual Stress and when the relationship between Dyslexia/ Visual Stress, reading and colour was established. A survey using a selection of colour overlays on technological devices is presented. Survey participants include both people who declared they have Dyslexia and/or Visual Stress and participants who declared their do not have these conditions. The primary data created will show how much colour and technological medium affects the speed, understanding, legibility and absorption for the reader. After, collating relevant data and examination of the subject in-depth explanations and solutions will be the sort to find effective resolutions to improve a Dyslexia/ Visual Stress user's interpretation of the text and reading ability on technological devices.

Chapter 2- History of Dyslexia

Historical overview of Dyslexia therapy and research

Dyslexia is currently referred to as a Neurobiological Learning Disability negatively affecting fluent word recognition, such as spelling and affecting people’s ability to read and absorb information (REFERENCE). However, over the last 130 years, the term 'Dyslexia' has changed drastically, the meaning evolving throughout history. The original meaning of the word Dyslexia differed greatly from today's description in the Code of Practice by the Department of Education and Employment (DDE) in 1994, (Snowling, 2001; Vellutino, 1979). Although today Dyslexia is seen as a disability learning disorder it has often been a subject of constant deliberation and debate throughout history, in particular, one of the most famous discussions referred to by WORD MISSING HERE (Ellis, 2016; Tonnessen, 1997). The validity of the claim is still ongoing. In the 1900s and before the word Dyslexia evolved it was referred to as; 'Word Blindness', the condition creating reading and writing difficulties. Sir Francis Galton was one of the first to investigate the disorder in 1869; he went into depth evaluating learning difficulties (Reeves, 2015). The definition of Dyslexia has changed visibly over the years and has been investigated from many viewpoints. One viewpoint is that the condition is a medical problem that needs fixing; alternatively, other perspectives are that it is purely an educational problem.(Reeves, 2015). Johannes Schmidt a German Physician is believed to be one of the first people to have reported a person with a reading difficulty in 1676; viewed by (Anderson & Meier-Hedder, 2001); Schmidt, had a patient that had suffered a stroke, this resulted in his patient developing reading disabilities. However, much opinion accepts another view (Shaywitz, 2012) and Oxford University.) They considered the neurologist Adolph Kussmual to be the first person to have reported the subject of reading difficulties during 1887. Adolph Kussmual, explored the visual aspect, evaluating adult patient’s eyesight. Kussmaul believed that there had to be something wrong with a patient’s visual perspective and concluded that this visual weakness reflected why people had a difficulty reading. After discovering a vision affected disability he came to referring the condition as ‘Word Blindness’ this term became very famous within his profession and spread fast among educators and medical practitioners. The term ‘Word Blindness’ was seen in medical journals and referred to people with learning difficulties and with neurological afflictions (Critchley, 1975). The word ‘Dyslexia’ was adopted in 1887 by Rudolf Berlin a German Ophthalmologist who had been influenced by ‘Adolph Kussmual's’, paper on the subject, however, the word was not spread widely throughout the world until the 1980s (Berlin, 1887). Later the term ‘Word Blindness' began to pick up more publicity, Dr Dejerne a French neurologist specialising in alexia without agraphia began to make an in-depth study into ‘Word Blindness’, the results were published in 1891 in ‘The Lancet Medical Journal’. Within these journals, he went into details on how his patient had difficulties connecting writing and speaking. Dr Dejerne “concluded that the linguistic problems of his patient were the result of neurological impairment in the brain caused by the trauma” (Henderson, 1984). Kussmaul and Dejerne assumption were that people with reading difficulties were seen as having a neurological disorder up until the late 19th century, although there was no real evidence to support this theory. (Dehaene, 2009, Henderon, 1984).

Due to the two major World Wars research into Dyslexia within the UK slowed down. However, it proceeded to increase within the USA with a neurologist Dr Samuel T Orton from the State University of Iowa. Orton produced his first paper on the subject of 'Word Blindness' in 1925. Within this paper, he did refer to Kussmaul's, Morgen's and Hinshelwood's studies, but he came to a different conclusion. Orton conducted his studies and observations. He developed his own theories that attributed to this reading disorder. He concluded that the reason for the disorder was due to a lack of cerebral dominance. (Orton and Orton, 1966) not attributed to a region of the brain lying mainly in the anterolateral region of the parietal lobe. However, Orton’s theory of cerebral dominance was proved to be false, but he was one of the first to bring ‘Dyslexia’ to prominence. ‘Dyslexia’ now started to become a commonly used term. The term ‘Dyslexia’ was now used to describe a reading disability. This was appropriate as “The original word ‘Dyslexia’ comes from the Greek language and means ‘difficulty’ with ‘words’” (Norris and Pauc, n.d.). In the 1970s, research into ‘Dyslexia’ increased substantially. There had been an upsurge in the reports of Dyslexia within the education sector. ‘Dyslexia’ was now being recognised as a condition. It was now being viewed from an educational perspective, educationalists now seeking ways they could improve a person’s reading and ways to cope with this disability (Vellutino, 1979). During this time within the early stages of studies and investigations, there were many observations where educationalists began to recognise that many children’s development within reading and writing had extreme irregularities. In the 1970s children’s reading and writing skills were being assessed, but assessment techniques were still seen to be in the development process in a ‘psychosis state’. After the 1970s investigations into the development of children’s reading and writing, difficulties began to be more seriously conducted. The results were interpreted from an educational perspective; this was in response to fulfilling the educational needs of children in different grades (Mather & Wendling, 2011). There was not a drastic change within the sector, but there was a rise in study techniques as a better understanding of the condition evolved. The word Visual Stress is a perceptual processing condition that causes reading difficulties, headaches and visual problems from exposure to patterns in text, such as lines of text. Visual Stress is linked to dyslexia and similar visual learning difficulties. Sufferers experience print distortion and fatigue when reading. When it comes to "Visual Stress" Wilkins make references to that whilst you are reading it effecting your eyesight and the process can make the words begin to blur, duplicate and jump around the page when suggesting this diagnosis it is automatically assumed to be Dyslexia due to the similarities of a Dyslexia diagnosis, but, about 12%-14% of the population are affected by Visual Stress about approximately 46% of people that have been diagnosed with Dyslexia have struggled with vision stress. (Evans, 1997) In 2005 Kriss and Evans did a study on they discover that about 37.5% with Dyslexia struggle with Visual Stress and 25% of children that were not Dyslexic struggle with this too. The associated symptoms include: blurring (24%), duplication (16%), jump (12%), format switch (6%), and fading (3.5%) of the visual stimulus (Kriss and Evans, 2005). According to Meares in (1980) reading difficulties within children comes from “originates in the perceptual instability of the visual input due to the organization of the figure with respect to the background of the black ink writing on a white paper” Meares (1980). Therefore this creates difficulty for the reader due to more books predominantly being printed in black ink and on white paper. It was established that some people have a negative reflection when observing text in black ink on white paper, this results in Visual Stress affecting the reader's cognitive ability.

Chapter 3- Colour overlays

Current thinking and who is affected

In recent years, researchers had shown that a reading disability was not something to be taken lightly all or nothing (Ellis, 2016). Disabilities of a reader should be on a continuum from a minimum to maximum scale. Although people with reading disabilities all have similar symptoms, it is very easy to put them in the same bracket for phonological processing (Ellis, 2016; Fletcher, 2009; Mahmoodi-Shahrebabaki, 2014). Quantitative studies have revealed that it is not a momentary disability and there is no quick fix for it and the level of the disability will not reduce throughout a person’s lifetime, (Soldatic and Grech, 2014). It has also been shown that the children without a reading disability have maintained the same reading level and reading abilities throughout their lives according to their age group (Patterson, Marshall & Coltheart, 2017). Recent research that has been released on Dyslexia has shown that one of the main reasons for children that have Dyslexia is related to phonological processing. Currently semantic and syntax grammatical errors have not been seen as the main issues to the cause of Dyslexia. Researchers are beginning investigations into the effects of cognitive disorders with people that have a reading disorder to explore, for example, possible synergies between Hyper-Activity Disorder (ADHD) and the development of Dyslexia (Fletcher, 2009). The British Dyslexia Association has currently recorded the number of individuals with Dyslexia in the United Kingdom to be around 10%. This relates to 4% of the sufferers classified at the survive end of the Dyslexia spectrum. This figure is estimated to be around 7.3 million people. However, this has been questioned by Dyslexia Action (2017), they believe the figure is more likely to be around 16% of the population or 11.5 million people. When assessing the situation worldwide; Dyslexia International (2017) believes that between 5-10% of the population experience Dyslexia; around 700 million people. However, like many of the figures, it is likely to be an underestimation. (Talli, Sprenger-Charolles and Stavrakaki, 2016) note that the figure is expected to be around 17% of the world’s population.

Relationship of colour overlays on the text.

Colour has been associated with reading since 1958. Initiated by Jansky (1958), there was a case involving a Dyslexic person who was struggling to read text on a white background. It was stated that the reader's ability sufficiently improved when the background colour changed to yellow. Although questionable this initiated much debate on the subject of reading difficulties and what the scientific cause of Dyslexia. This evidence supported the theory of “phonological hypothesis” (Wagner and Torgesen, 1987 pp.192), since the efficiency of the processes of phonological processing is among the best predictors of reading skill acquisition (Wagner and Torgesen, 1987; Snowling et al., 2000) This, therefore, brought awareness of the visual and perceptual skills (Watson et al., 2003). This development impacted on reading impairment, increasing awareness. Professionals began to observe and investigate Dyslexia sufferers evaluating their relationship to perceptual dysfunction referred to as ‘Scotopic Sensitivity Syndrome’ also referenced to as Meares-Irlen Syndrome and Visual Stress (MISViS; Evans, 1997). One of the main implications of suffering from Dyslexia is struggling with letter imagery, resulting in words becoming blurry and unreadable. There has been much speculation on how to improve visual reading for Dyslexics. One of the biggest innovations within the Dyslexic debate has been the introduction of colour overlays. Various professionals believe that the introduction of colour overlays can increase a Dyslexic's reading ability considerably. When a coloured overlay is placed over the top of a piece of text it has been claimed that the text on the pages has much more clarity, hence allowing the reader to process the image of the text more efficiently, improving speed and fluency of reading. The concept of Visual Stress is the relationship between the layout of the text and the black ink in conjunction with white paper, therefore changing one of these elements could, therefore, improve one’s ability to read and reduce the impact of visual stress. (A.J. Wilkins, 2003; Irlen, 2010). This leads to the idea of eliminating one of the elements, thus changing the relationship between the elements to establish an improved visual impact. The evolution was initiated to change the background colour of the text; however, due to most books being printed in the black and white text the idea of a transparent piece of coloured plastic was developed. A (Colour Overlay) could slot on top of the text to change the background colour (2002; see also Kruk et al., 2008). According to Scott et al, after a reader had been reading for 10 mins they would normally begin to suffer from ‘Vision Stress’ due to the combination of the black ink and the white paper, but after reading with a coloured overlays ‘Vision Stress’ symptoms were dramatically decreased (2002; see also Kruk et al., 2008). Therefore, this could mean that their eye/visual reflexes are reduced and the reader is not struggling against the contrast of the background, this enabled the reader to find it easier to read, interpret and absorb information. In turn, improving both reading and reading acquisition due to the colour overlays (Irlen, 2010). Dyslexia and Visual Stress are different syndromes, in many cases, there are a significant amount of people with Dyslexia that experience similar problems associated with visual processing (Watson and Willows, 1995). However, when a person with Dyslexia is put in the same category with someone with a visual perceptual deficit, their reading ability can be negatively affected. (Wilkins et al., 2001). In Wilkin research’s it has been found that when a person with Dyslexia has been shown a piece of writing with a colour overlay over the top there reading speed and absorption has increased by 25% (Wilkins, 2002) and although non-dyslexia children ability to read still increases with the use of colour overlays the performance of the dyslexic sufferer is considerably more. (Singleton and Henderson, 2007). It was considered that a person suffering from Meares-Irlen syndrome; a condition when a person experiences consistent eye strain and/or visual distortions – e.g., colour, shape, or movement illusions would, therefore, benefit from the use of colour overlays resulting in improved reading skills. This, therefore, could have implications for 12% of the population and nearly half (46%) of the Dyslexic population. Colour overlays in the treatment of Dyslexia have been widely used; however, there is some controversy to whether they are that effective. This, therefore, has put the Meares-Irlen syndrome colour overlay treatment into question. To establish any benefit of the usage of colour overlays it is necessary to investigate many different professionals and studies to accurately assess the subjects in more depth relating to reading performance with colour overlays. It needs to be concluded that dyslexics are truly going to be able to improve their reading ability. We must appraise respected and valued historical evidence as well as the latest developments to establish effective treatments on the issue of dyslexia.

The impact of coloured overlays on Dyslexia and Visual Stress

In 1999 Colour filter usage dramatically increased by about 80%. The usage of filters now began to be introduced within schools Evans et al. (1999), a major reason for such a dramatic increase was due to many students suffering Visual Stress Syndromes and additionally, Dyslexia was now becoming a more common known disability. Coloured overlays/filter was seen to decrease the symptom and reduce Visual Stress and improve the Dyslexic sufferer's ability to read. (Irlen, 1991; Singleton and Trotter, 2005; Singleton and Henderson, 2007) Vision Stress was discovered due to people being tested for Dyslexia or suffering reading difficulties (Nichols et al., 2009). Many people might assume and put Vision Stress and Dyslexia in the same category, but in a more recent study, it has been argued that Visual Stress was considered as a subset to Dyslexia, it was a separate disorder to Dyslexia (Kriss and Evans, 2005; Kruk et al., 2008). Indeed, Kriss and Evans (2005) “noted that the prevalence of visual stress in dyslexic individuals is of only 10% higher than in the non-dyslexic individuals” (Kriss and Evans, 2005; Kruk et al., 2008), however, although Vision Stress and Dyslexia are seen as two individual disorders they do cross over into each other’s domain. Singleton and Trotter (2005); Experimented on Dyslexics and Non-Dyslexic people, to establish whether they had an increase or decrease in experiencing Visual Stress. They discovered that people with Dyslexia tendered to have an Increased and more positive reaction to the coloured overlays, reiterating that Dyslexia and Visual Stress are related. Although Wilkins argument was that Dyslexia and visual importance are two separate disorders, it can be highlighted that the treatment of both Visible Anxiety and Dyslexia can both benefit from using coloured Overlays. Singleton and Trotter assume that coloured overlays were always beneficial for Visual Stress. Colour overlays were not particularly helpful when used by non- Dyslexics, therefore, it has to be noted that people that benefit from colour overlays that are a non-dyslexic must, therefore, sufferer Visual Stress. This makes one conclude that Dyslexia and Visual Stress are two separates disorders. However, it can be argued that that colour overlays effectiveness depends on the coexistence of the two conditions, therefore it would not be relevant that the two conditions are related or not. Overall two different conclusions have been established, one that Dyslexia and Vision Stress is dependent; alternatively, that they are two spectated disorders. There have been many studies completed on colour and the role it plays in improving someone’s reading ability, although colour overlays are known to improve a person reading ability there is not a specific understanding of their relationship. (Pinna et al., 2010). One of the reasons why there currently is not a connection is due to there being no full explanation into Visual Stress Syndrome and its role in reading ability; therefore, the whole theory of colour overlays has to be questioned and effective conclusions established. When assessing potential effects, we need to establish how colour and reading overlap and work together. One of the theories that have been evaluated in the past is that Visual Stress and Dyslexia sufferers possess a stronger sensorial stimulation of a densely written text; this might lead to a worse reaction to their inhibitory mechanisms in the visual cortex within the brain, resulting in an excessive excitation of the cortical neurons. This reaction causes words to become blurry and move around the page, making it harder for the users to read (Huang et al., 2003). This hypothesis shows that there is a selection of users that could benefit from additional assistance with their visual-perceptual problem due to a cortical hypersensitivity so their visual cortex would be activated to intense visual stimulations. Wilkins and Evans (2010) came up with a theory that coloured overlays work due to encouraging the distribution of excessive excitation when reading the symptoms of Visual Stress and Dyslexia are reduced therefore increasing the processing of reading. This theory does not have backing due to having weak evidence to support the hypothesis (Henderson et al., 2013). In a study done by Chouinard et al. (2012) about neuroimaging, it shows evidence of cortical over-excitability in the presence of Visual Stress Syndrome. The argument is also based on the early studies that took place by (Wilkins et al., 1994; Robinson and Foreman, 1999) These studies indicate that there is potential for suitable overlays working effectively, however, results would only be beneficial after assessing individuals to establish the appropriate colour overlays necessary to stimulate the vulnerable brain area.

When assessing Dyslexia and Visual Stress some of the main symptoms affecting the sufferers are words and letter movement and letter distortion. These symptoms are similar to those that have been reported by sufferers of Magnocellular Dysfunction. (Stein and Walsh, 1997). Magnocellular cells also referred to as M-cells, are neurons situated within the Adina magnocellular layer of the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus. The cells are part of the visual system. There are some inconsistences when evaluating (Skoyles and Skottun, 2009), the magnocellular pathway, the condition produces long-lasting, anomalous visual traces which interferes with comprehensibility, causing visual blurriness and wording movement, however, it cannot be conclusively substantiated due to lack of solid evidence available when evaluating the theory. Wilkins (2003) argues that the theory of Magnocellular Dysfunction can affect Visual Stress and Dyslexia and the condition might be the reasoning behind why certain individuals react towards certain colours. He believes that colour overlays may be beneficial however not just one colour, a specific colour adapted for the individual to gain full visual improvement. According to (Chase et al., 2003), the relationship between colour overlays and text goes back to brain functioning whilst reading. It specifies that the Magnocellular System is what affects someone reading ability. This is substantiated when using a red light on the text; the red light increases the activities of the magnocellular system increasing comprehension. (Chase et al., 2003). Similarly, Ray et al. (2005) additionally when using yellow filters, reducing the blue within the light spectrum. This inhibits and increases the use of the magnocellular system for the sufferers of Dyslexia and Visual Stress, although valued it has not been trialled since (Palomo-Álvarez and Puell, 2013). However, this research does not correspond with early research completed on coloured overlays; early research suggests that there is a specific colour for every person whereas this newer research suggests that yellow should work for all sufferers.

Chapter 4- Technological devices

Technological devices

Computers advancement plays a huge part in today's future technical development. The effects of electronic devices can be powerful; the speeds of refresh rate; characteristics of various operating systems; web software; the surrounding lighting; strategies for colour search; liquid crystal displays and text layout all have an impact on the user. Today computers are arguably bigger than the book and the paper copy; therefore they are of extreme significance to those that struggle with Dyslexia and Visual Stress. Unfortunately, the downside of constant computer usage causes many individuals Visual Stress. In this section, we consider how much stress can be reduced. When Dyslexia and Visual Stress computer users use electronic devices it has been established that effective operation systems can potentially benefit the user using effective colour optimal for reading. (The foreground colours are those used for text or graphics). There are many different types of electronic devices available; it is, therefore, difficult to put the devices into one category. Most computers display screens use a very similar ray tube that common in television receivers. The images are created by zig-zags and spots of lights that go down the screen varying in the brightness and colours as it goes. The spots create an image and then move at a rapid speed to perceive the motions. However, on a more modern display screen it takes less than 1/7 of a second to “refreshed” i.e., the refresh rate is greater than 70Hz (Smith, and Pokorny, 1975). On systems such as Windows 3.1, Windows 95 and MacBook there is a system in place where the background can be adjusted on your computer screen, a colour filter can be added in by using an Application. Simon Hamer has developed an application called the “Tinter” (Smith, and Pokorny, 1975). this can be downloaded from Http//: www.essex.ac.uk/psychology/overlays. The software creates a window on to the computer with 3 settings; the first one controls the brightness, the second controls the saturation of the screen and final setting determines whether the sliders apply to the background or the foreground. The "Tinter" can be added with all the other applications. This software can be run with any applications (word processor, spreadsheet, etc.) therefore can be used without the addition of any overlay whilst viewing the screen. In addition to the options provided by the operating system, there are many applications, such as word processors, web browsers and spreadsheets that permit the background and foreground colours to be reset according to the user's preference. Only rarely is it possible to assess the effects of any change immediately without interfering with the window in which the application is running. There is a difficulty when viewing on an electronic screen with brightness adjustment, it can affect colour distinction; changing the original colour significantly, from a light blue to a dark blue. The colour optimal for surfaces and light sources may differ because of adaptation. (Smith, and Pokorny, 1975).Therefore, when using colour filters on an electronic device the user would need to have it on the same brightness consistently to achieve the maximum outcome. These considerations suggest that the settings of a computer monitor screen should be selected by the user on their computer in the lighting conditions in which they typically work. Settings obtained on a different computer in a different environment may not be optimal.

When selecting the most effective colour level on an electronic device, it is normally best to pick darker colours due to the brightness having the biggest impact. Choosing darker colours will not affect the saturation of the colour that the user picks, for example, in Word 97 you would go to ‘Format menu’ and select ‘Background’. Select, ‘More Colours’ and then ‘Standard’ and finally select one of the colours close to white. (Smith, and Pokorny, 1975). Today screens have very good spatial resolution and one of the most important parts of the image is not created by a flying spot, they do not flicker, even at high frequencies, ‘Cathode ray tube displays’ always flicker. Even though the flicker frequency may be too high for you to be aware of the flicker, it can nevertheless interfere with the control of eye movements, and this can be tiring (Wilkins, 1995). The interference with eye movements may be one reason why it is usually more effective to proofread text on paper than on screen. To produce an accurate investigation when assessing readability, not only brightness and the colour level on a devise screen must be assessed, but additionally, the size of the text and the spacing has a substantial impact. Colour has an impact, however not such a significant impact as the text size and spacing. (Wilkins, 1995). It is essential to choose a font that is as large as possible given the amount of text you need to see on the page at any one time. Choose sufficiently large line spacing. Experiment with character spacing: some fonts are much clearer when the character spacing is increased by a fraction of a font. No device in the history of written language has ever offered the flexibility provided by the computer. This flexibility could allow for the differences that exist in the way people see, but at present the software tools are insufficient.

Chapter 5- Theory’s and studies

Meares-Irlen syndrome

In New Zealand, in 1980 a teacher called Olive Meares described that some people suffered from visual distortions when reading. Later in 1983, American psychologist Helen Irlen wrote a paper about the use of coloured overlays helping people with text readability. Similar symptoms were separately noted by Meares and Irlen. Irlen, was the first to analytically name the condition, calling it "scotopic sensitivity", however, over the years has come to be known as the Meares-Irlen syndrome. Meares-Irlen Syndrome. Meares-Irlen Syndrome (MIS) is often a condition categorised by symptoms of visual stress and visual sensory activity distortions of letters and words that can be relieved by using individually prescribed coloured filters. The syndrome which was previously referred to as ( Scotopic Sensitivity Syndrome) can arise with accomplished readers, however, some maintain that it is significantly more common in people diagnosed with a learning disorder (Irlen, 1997). Literature is abundant on MIS, reviewed by Evans (2001), and presently there are two placebo-controlled trials (Wilkins et al., 1994; Robinson & Foreman, 1999). These trials support the existence of this syndrome and endorse the treatment of an individual with specific prescribed coloured filters. Specifically, every trial shows that to achieve benefits from colour filters they need to be individual and specific. Individuals appreciate different colours. Colour filters have to be specific and precise for each person. These limits have caused a good deal of disagreement within the topic. Several studies are negative regarding individually prescribed filters while others are more positive. People analysing data of participants in studies using equivalent colours, or restricted variation of colours, tend to be negative (Evans, 2001).

Detection of Meares-Irlen Syndrome

Detecting the presence of MIS in a person is usually shown by how they have a recollection of text; these symptoms are unique to the reader throughout the reading of a piece of text. There are confines to assessing the judgement of symptoms for the detection of MIS (Jeanes et al., 1997): Symptoms may be exaggerated (for example, by susceptible children), some children do not recognise indicators until they have subsided. Due to late diagnosis children, symptoms appear 'normal' and other indicators of MIS are generic. It is important to diagnose as the symptoms of MIS can be caused by a spread of similar visual issues (Evans, 2005). A screening programme is used using coloured overlays to establish the MIS condition. Overlays are clear plastic sheets that are placed on the page to permit a comparison of text, one text is covered with an overlay and one text remains uncovered. The major assessments methods used for testing MIS (Evans, 2001) in the United Kingdom use coloured overlays. (Irlen & young lady, 1989; Wilkins, 1994). The assessment that usually follows (Lightstone & Evans, 1995) starts with a screening process using victimisation coloured overlays, often carried out by lecturers or optometrists. The coloured overlays within the Wilkins/MRC system were designed to sample thoroughly and reliably CIE 1976 UCS hue (Wilkins, 1994). If a child favoured a preference for a coloured overlay then the chosen overlay was tested for reading speed. To satisfy the criterion of voluntary sustained use, the person is issued with their most well-liked coloured overlay and invited to use the overlay for a reading test. To test for improvement in the rate of reading, the Wilkins Rate of Reading is used (Wilkins, Jeanes, Pumfrey & Laskier, 1996). The participants that show the most benefit from an overlay would ultimately be assessed with the Wilkins/MRC Intuitive measuring system. This system allows a very accurate evaluation for the most suitable tinted lenses combined with preciseness tinted lenses to prescribe tinted spectacles (Wilkins, Milroy et al., 1992). People consistently inform of positive results using preciseness tinted lenses rather than the coloured overlays.

Testing with the Wilkins Rate of Reading Test

Wilkins developed a reading test (WRRT). Most reading tests are designed to establish the reader's skill and to be relatively unaffected by visual skills (e.g., they use large, widely spaced text) The Wilkins Rate of Reading Test is designed to be greatly affected by visual factors and relatively unaffected by reading skills (Wilkins AJ, Jeanes RJ, Pumfrey PD and Laskier M, 1996). The text given to the user is familiar and they are then tested to see how quickly they can read by timing. They are given a similar piece of text, but using the colour overlays and then timed again. The two readings are assessed to see if there has been an improvement. The reader will repeat this process with several different colours; they also will be asked which colour overlay they found the easiest to read from. If a participant reads 5% faster with the overlay then they are likely to benefit from the overlay usage, (Wilkins AJ, Jeanes RJ, Pumfrey PD and Laskier M, 1996) and an improvement of 10% indicates that a coloured overlay or glasses are very likely to be appreciated by the child.

Diagnosis and prevalence of Meares-Irlen Syndrome

A problem with diagnosis MIS (Evans & Joseph, 2002) is that there is a variety of people ranging from people who have not found coloured filters beneficial through to those who experience a small amount of benefit to the severe cases, who find a marked improvement in legibility. Studies have shown that continual voluntary standards show the occurrence of MIS in unselected college populations is about 20% (Wilkins et al. (1996; Fig 3)) Jeanes et al. (1997), Wilkins et al. (2001; Table 3 & Fig 7), Evans & Joseph (2001). Jeanes established that children who consistently used overlays indicated an average improvement of 14% in reading speed with the WRRT (Jeanes et al. 1997). Many studies have calculated the number of people with MIS in random samples, for example by assessing large quantities of unselected children in education. (Jeanes et al., 1997; Wilkins et al., 1996; Wilkins, Lewis, Smith, Rowland & Tweedie, 2001). Although there is currently sensible proof for the existence of MIS within the general population, there is little evidence of MIS in people diagnosed with Dyslexia. Irlen has suggested that MIS occurs in 12-14% of the general population and 46% in those with Dyslexia, unfortunately, no data support this theory (Irlen, 1997).

Isla Kriss and Bruce J.W. Evans study

Isla Kriss and Bruce J.W. Evans conducted a study 2 x 2 mixed factorial design experiment, this included Dyslexic participants and a control group. 64 participants took part, 32 in the Dyslexic group and 32 control matching age and gender, the average age of group 9.4 years. Children were selected randomly from a selection of backgrounds, schools and geographical location. Participants had to be between the ages of 7-12 years, able to read 15 words of the WRRT test. The dyslexic group had to be diagnosed with Dyslexia. Intelligence was not used in the testing criteria; however, teachers selected an average academic range.

Observations on overlay testing

A variety of overlay colours were selected by the groups. In the control group, 12 (37.5%) participants selected a mint green overlay, and nine (28%) selected a grey overlay. This result was similar to the Dyslexic group, mint green being selected by at nine participants, (28%), however, only three participants (9%) selected the grey overlay. It has to be noted that both colour overlays were shown at the end of the test. Participants may have felt the urge at the end of the test that they had to select a colour. (even had it been made clear that it was not compulsory to choose an overlay). It has to be noted that all of the control participants except one selected an overlay, compared to five of the dyslexics who did not select any. They may have been other factors that influenced the participants to select a certain overlay when not required novelty or aesthetics (children may have selected their favourite colours). Honesty within the Dyslexic group who did not select an overlay could have had influence or perhaps being more used to testing situations in the field. However, this could be addressed by introducing a placebo overlay as in some previous studies (Evans & Joseph, 2002; Tyrrell, Holland, Dennis & Wilkins, 1995). Double overlays also seemed to create some complications. But again the colour overlay Mint green was favoured in the majority of double overlay combinations. Four participants in the Dyslexic group chose the lime and mint green combination, one selected double mint green, and another aqua and mint green. Two of the participants decided that two colour overlays were better than one. However, when questioned which overlay the combination they preferred and was easier to read through they selected single overlays. This may due to these participants feeling two overlays should be better than one. Today now that computer tests are available this problem should be overcome, order and combining overlays should not be an issue. (Thomson, 2002b).

Rello and Bigham study

Rello and Bingham's study measures the effect of using background colours on the screen to improve readability. The study consisted of 341 participants (89 with dyslexia). Like my study, the test was conducted on a computer screen. The results were gathered by assessing the reading time and distance the computer mouse travelled. The results from the study showed that particular colour screen background colours affect people with and without Dyslexia. The warm colour palette backgrounds such as peach, orange and yellow, substantially improved reading performance compared to the cooler background colours, blue, blue-grey and green. The results from the study indicate that using coloured backgrounds can improve readability, it may significantly have an increased benefit for the Dyslexic.

The initial results of the study showed that background colours influence readability. This is in common with previous studies. peach, orange and yellow background colours with black fonts created faster reading times. Looking at an overall observation the colours could be put into two groups warm and cool shades. The warm shades being peach, orange and yellow performing well and cool blue, grey and green having less impact on the reader. Another significant conclusion from the results of the Rello and Bingham study was that both Dyslexic and non-dyslexic participants behaved similarly with the same background colours. Both preferring the warmer colours. Additionally within this study mouse movement was recorded whilst reading, the results showed that the Dyslexics have higher use of the mouse.

Chapter 8- Significance and Analysis of Study.

Comparison to other theories

To achieve a respected and valued study it is necessary not only to do an accurate examination of my research data; but to compare and contrast with comparable previous theories such as those studies completed by Meares-Irlen Syndrome Testing, with the Wilkins Rate of Reading Test, Meares-Irlen Syndrome Neale, Isla Kriss and Bruce J.W. Evans study. A considerable impact on my results was due to the variance in testing methods. Unlike previous studies, tests were completed anonymously online in an uncontrolled environment. I was unable to assess how quickly the tests were completed, unable to control the variation in the quality, type and size of the screen used; whether a tablet computer or mobile phone was used and the graphical level and quality of the brightness on the participants' screen. It will be necessary to take these variations into account when comparing results and data from previous studies. It is significant to make a clear a distinction between testing method; the Wilkins Rate of Reading Test was mostly relevant to assess reading speed not the clarity of the text. The current study was conducted online with the view to assessing if certain colour overlays improved clarity on a screen, reading speed was not assessed. Participants were asked why they had chosen their favoured colour overlays with the view of gathering the impacting factors for their choice. A factor to be considered when assessing my results was the honesty of the participants as I was unable to control many of the variables within the testing environment, there had to be a degree of trust to ensure no bias. Whereas within the Wilkins Rate of Reading Test, Wilkins monitored the participants directly recording the exact reading speed in a controlled environment, therefore making his results more reliable. However, it could be said that "The participant will feel more comfortable in their environment than in a lab environment. Imagine that the website being tested is a banking website and the target users are existing customers. If the study requires that real tasks are completed on the website, participants will probably feel more comfortable displaying their banking details on their screens while in their home then in a lab." (Remote Usability Testing). This could increase feedback and gather more data and increase the reliably of the study. (Remote Usability Testing).

Meares-Irlen Syndrome analysis of reading and Wilkins Rate of Reading Test

To evaluate a true comparison of the Meares-Irlen Syndrome theory and the Wilkins Rate of Reading test to my results we have to assess both the similarities and the differences; although very different assessments there were many common features throughout both studies. The Evans study in 1997 shows the use of the Irlen system of colour overlays; after a year and a half of patients using tinted glasses, 73% of patients said they would continue to use. A similar result was recorded in the MacLauchlan study in 1993 where 81% of users said they would still use their tints. The reports of the results showed that the tints improved participants who struggled by 80%. The Wilkins Rate of Reading Test showed that participants had a 49% increase in their reading ability. When evaluating these reports and comparing the data to the Dyslexic group within the current study, 65% of the participants said they would continue to use the colour overlays on their screens. Although this is not as high as the percentage in the Evan and MacLauchlan study it is still a significant percentage of the participants stating that they benefited from the use of a colour overlays. However, a larger difference in the current study could be seen in Non-Dyslexic group with only 38% of participants stating that they would use the colour overlays again. When combining both the results it shows that only 48% of participants in my study would use the overlays again. Therefore, this is not consistent with Evan and MacLauchlan study. However, 25.5% of both groups said they would ‘maybe’ use the overlays again, whereas only 24% of participants stated they would not use the overlays again. Therefore, 76% of participants were in the ‘yes’ and ‘maybe’ group of using coloured overlays. There are a variety of reasons why the ‘Evans and Wilkins Rate of Reading Study’ results may differ from the results of my study. The colour tints were used for a longer assessment period, a year and a half; therefore the participants had more time to see the impact of the colour overlays. My current study was conducted over a very short time frame, the overlays were only used the once on the survey, therefore the assessment time was not long enough for the participants to appreciate the true effect.

It was reported by(Huang, Cooper, Satana, dramatist & Cao, 2003) whilst conducting studies using the Meares-Irlen Syndrome theory with colour overlays that participants before using the colour overlays had suffered migraines and visual cortex. In the Wilkins Rate, Reading study participants had previously experienced a pattern of glare when reading. After using the colour overlays it was reported that symptoms reduced and reading experience improved. To gauge my study results concerning the Meares-Irlen Syndrome theory and the Evans and Wilkins Rate of Reading studies it is necessary to review within my study the responses of participants when asked to explain why they found certain colours easier to read off. 53% of Dyslexia and Visual Stress group used the words contrast’ and ‘clearer’ within their answers; a similar pattern was also seen within the Non-Dyslexic and Non-Visual Stress group, 44% of this category using the same terminology. Combining the two groups I found 42.5% gaining improved clarity of the text. Other differentials could be seen within my study between participants within groups using common terminology found in responses, “Becomes less burry” and “Least jumpy letters”, 41% of the Dyslexia and Visual Stress category used these terms within their answers, whereas, only 4% of the Non-Dyslexic and Non-Visual Stress participants used this terminology. This indicates the Meares-Irlen Syndrome theory and the Evans Wilkins Rate of Reading Studies readers benefit when using the colour overlays to improve the readability of text.

Isla Kriss and Bruce J.W. Evans and Rello and Bigham study Comparison

Isla Kriss and Bruce J.W. Evans studies assessed which colour overlays worked best. Doing a similar evaluation within my study it was significant to see if there was a correlation within the studies. In Isla Kriss and Bruce J.W. Evans study green proved to be the most used colour overlay; 28% selected in the Dyslexic category, this result does not correspond with my study results. The most popular overlay colour selected in my current study of participants was yellow with 35% of Dyslexic participants selecting. The colour green was only selected by 12% of the participants. In the Non-Dyslexic and Non-Visual Stress group, the second preferred colour was green, 28% of participants. Although this does show a similarity, it is not as relevant due to it being in the Non-Dyslexic and Non-Visual Stress category and also being the participants second choice. Although the results did not match with the Isla Kriss and Bruce J.W. Evans studies data it may have been due to my study being completed on a technological device screens the screen brightness influencing the results. Isla Kriss and Bruce J.W. Evans studies were completed by a younger group of participants. My study was completed by an 18+ age group whereas their study was carried out with children. The children may have just chosen their favourite colour instead of the colour that worked best for them. Additionally, Isla Kriss and Bruce J.W. Evans studies were completed in person, therefore the children could be closely monitored whereas my study was completed online and I could not accurately assess time selecting the colour overlays. Isla Kriss and Bruce J.W. Evans study data reveals that 24% said that ‘blurring’ decreases with the colour overlays, 16% stated ‘duplication’ decreased and 12% said ‘words jumping around the page’ reduced. These results corresponded to the results found in my study. Participants responded when being asked to explain why they found certain colours easier to read off, 53% of the Dyslexia and Visual Stress participants used words such as contrast’ and ‘clearer’; 41% used of the words “Becomes less burry” and “Least jumpy letters”. Within my study the word ‘contrast’ was particularly prominent; this may be due to the test being conducted online, therefore creating additional brightness and glare not experienced on the paper tests.

Rello and Bigham

Rello and Bigham studied the effectiveness of colours enhancing the reading of people with Dyslexia. Due to the study being conducted online the relevance of the data will be of value when comparing with the data of my study. Although the studies were conducted on a similar medium there were other different testing variables. Rello and Bigham results showed that participants reading speeds increased when using the colours peach, orange and yellow in the Dyslexia group. These results do correspond with my data to some degree, the majorly (35%) of my Dyslexic and Visual Stress participants selecting yellow as their primary colour and Rello and Bigham participants recording faster reading times for the warmer colours such as peach, yellow and orange. However, my study data differed with the colours peach and orange, within the Dyslexic and Visual Stress group Peach and orange were low in the ranking as favoured colours to read off. When assessing the Non-Dyslexia and Non-Visual Stress groups the Rello and Bigham data shows that peach, orange and yellow increased speed reading ability. Similarly in my study, the Non-Dyslexic and Non-Visual Stress group selected yellow as their reading overall preferred overlay. It could also be noted that 65% of my Dyslexia and Visual Stress group in my study would use the overlays again due to the improved benefit of reading legibility. This similarly correlates with the reading speeds within the Rello and Bigham study, Dyslexics speeds improving with using the warmer colours yellow, peach and orange. Additionally, contrasting only 38% of my Non-Dyslexic and Non-Visual Stress group felt the overlay was useful, this correlates with the Non- Dyslexics in the Rello and Bigham study showing that background colour has less of an effect on reading speed. The results from my study also show a relationship with the Rello and Bigham studies. Similar colours are recorded as having the least impact on the reader. The Dyslexic and Visual Stress participants in my tests finding that grey reduced readability. This was duplicated in the Rello and Bidham study with the Dyslexics having the slowest reading speed using the grey background as a colour. Additionally, The Non-Dyslexic and Non-Visual showed similar results using the colour grey. Overall, viewing data from both studies it suggests that backgrounds that tend to be lighter are easier to read off whereas the duller cool colours tended to not improve readability.

Chapter 9- Conclusion

Discussion

The critical issue is the role of colour on how people with Dyslexia and Visual Stress may evaluate information on screens? In this present study, findings suggest that the use of certain colour overlays have a beneficial effect on people with Dyslexia and Visual stress when using technological devices. This study like similar studies ‘Rello and Bigham’ suggest background colour can have an impact on reading legibility on a screen. Generally the warm colours such as yellow improve readability. The benefit of colour overlays can additionally be assessed by the amount of Dyslexic and Visual Stress participants wanting to use the overlays again. In the study findings, 65% of Dyslexic and Visual Stress participants concluded that they would use a colour overlay again. The benefits of the use of the overlays were reiterated in the data of the ‘Evans study in 1997’ using the Irlen system of colour overlays; after year and a half patients using their tinted glasses demonstrated that 73% of patients said they would continue to use. Based on this current study evidence, paler colour overlays can provide some support to readability on a computer screen giving a significant advantage to users with Dyslexia and Visual Stress. However, the colour shade is seen as an important component. As with all studies, there are still issues that remain; the size, the brand and type of technological device and screen brightness variation on individual devices. Future studies need to plan to address the different devices separately and explore text design font size and colour combinations within the devices.