Sustainable Skyscrapers: Challenges Ahead

Introduction

This work is about the environmental challenges of building and sustaining the skyscrapers in the world. The world is experiencing a boom in the construction of the Skyscrapers, and that has coincided with multiple challenges that are associated with the sustainability of these structures. There is a need to reduce the anthropogenic greenhouse gases, and climate change has become the most significant issue to be considered in deciding on the different technological advances that help humankind. I am writing on this topic to highlight the environmental impacts associated with tall buildings. The challenges exist in building and sustaining high rise buildings. However, the skyscrapers are among the viable ways to solve the housing problem facing the world with increasing populations around the globe. Therefore, skyscrapers are there to exist and it is prudent to look at ways they can be built sustainably, which is the focus of this work. The skyscrapers are now viewed as unsustainable based on the high-energy requirement, use of artificial lighting, conditioning, and effects on the communal spaces. From Mendis's (2013) work, by 2008, close to 3.3 billion people, representing half of the world population, were already living in cities. The urban communities are set to increase, and skyscrapers are what will offer sustainable living within the cities. The work will recommend some of the ways the architects can come up with designs that take into account the issue of environment and sustainability. In the near future, buildings will need to accommodate more people and will take up less space. Skyscrapers are likely to grow in popularity as well as height. There will be more demand for skyscrapers to use new technology and innovative designs in its construction to become sustainable and have less negative impacts on the environment. Since skyscrapers consume high amounts of operational energy due to its large-scale volume compared to low-rise development, there is a need to adopt sustainable and environmentally friendly construction methods. Green technology could be the solution to the construction of high-rise buildings.

Most high-rise buildings have a design life of more than 50 years and in some cases will last forever if properly constructed. Concrete designed skyscrapers may last up to 200 years. If properly maintained and extreme weather events or other catastrophes like earthquakes do not occur, a skyscraper can stay up for thousands of years. They stay until the building no longer serves the economic purpose it was designed for or until someone finds a more productive use for the land it sits on. Once a high rise building has aged by 30 plus years, then major refurbishment is necessary to ensure the maximization of rental yield & value. Skyscrapers are designed to sway, such as in high winds or earthquakes, to alleviate the pressure that may otherwise increase the risk of toppling over. They are also designed to collapse into themselves when they are destroyed. Unlike trees, skyscrapers are mostly hollow and composed of individual units, and so fall into themselves.

Chapter 1

Global Trends on the Skyscrapers Building across the World

The desire to build big is nothing new in the world today. Reaching for the sky, these buildings and towers compete for the world's attention. Skyscrapers have adorned the skyline since 1885. All have watched as engineering and design take this craft to even greater heights (Hollister and Wood, 2012).

A Skyscraper is a tall commercial building made of iron or steel, with over 40 floors and is taller than 150 M. In the 18th century, a skyscraper referred to a building with 10 to 20 floors. This definition shifted with advancing construction technology in the recent century. Buildings above a height of 300 M (984 ft) are referred to as supertall skyscrapers, while skyscrapers reaching beyond 600 M (1,969 ft) are classified as megatall skyscrapers (Hollister and Wood, 2012).

According to most skyscraper journals and books, the world’s first skyscraper was the home to the Home Insurance Building in Chicago, which was completed in 1885. Some publications however have presented different views. Scuyler (1999), in an article titled “The evolution of the skyscraper” proposed several candidates for the title of the first skyscraper: The Equitable Life Assurance Building in NewYork completed in 1970. This was the first building to have an elevator installed and was used comfortably to gain access to higher floors and thus allowed the buildings to be taller. It had seven stories but its external design didn’t show any more than four. The Tribune and the Western Union Building in New York, both completed in 1875. These buildings were the first to use elevators and the first to show the number of stories of the building on the exterior. The Home Insurance Building in Chicago, completed in 1885, was the first to have a core of metal embedded in the masonry.

In 1929, Mujica identified three different typologies for the first skyscrapers:

Pre-skyscrapers - These are tall masonry buildings with passenger elevators.

Embryo Skyscrapers - Tall buildings with elevators and a metal frame.

Modern Skyscrapers - Buildings of great height constructed on a steel skeleton with high-speed electric lifts.

Mujica (1929) presumed that Chicago’s Home Insurance Building as the first embryo skyscraper and Chicago’s Rand McNally Building as the first all-steel frame skyscraper built in the world.

1.1 Early Skyscrapers

Economic growth, financial organization of American businesses and the intensive use of land in the United States in the late 19th century augmented the need for city business space, and the inauguration of the first safe passenger elevator made possible the construction of buildings that are more than 5 stories tall. NewYork and Chicago cities were one of the earliest centers of skyscraper construction. These skyscrapers were a range of tall commercial buildings that rested on thick masonry walls at the ground level. According to Condit (1968), engineering structures bolstered their inner floors through their partitions. However, the taller the structure, the thicker the partitions needed to be, particularly at the base. Ford (2005), believed that early skyscrapers were mainly made up of small cubicles, only 12 feet (3.7 M) across, which were placed adjacent to one another along the corridors, following a pattern first invented in the Oriel Chambers building in England in 1864. This allowed average companies to rent out one or two offices and had an option of renting an additional office space if required at a later date. Skyscrapers provided a wide range of in-house services for tenants including shops, restaurants, barbershops, tailors, professional specialists, and libraries. They also employed quite a number of service staff to maintain and support them. With this collection of services and facilities, skyscrapers of that period were referred to as small cities in their own right (Bluestone,1991). The first skyscrapers were mainly occupied by male workers, but this changed in the 1890s, with gender equity and female employees being more common.

1.2 Modern Skyscrapers

The design, decoration, and construction of skyscrapers has passed through several stages. High risers are built with strengthened cores and the outer fabric of glass or cleaned stone. According to the CTHUB (2009), the skyscraper has been oriented away from a symbol of North American corporate power to communicate a city or nation’s place in the world. From the 1930’s, skyscrapers began to appear in various cities in East and Southeast Asia as well as Latin America. Skyscraper projects after World War II rejected the designs of early skyscrapers and embraced a uniform international style. The older early skyscrapers were either redesigned or demolished to suit contemporary tastes. The obvious verticality and glass blind partitions of this style turned into a sign of ultramodern urban life in many nations. Another factor influencing skyscraper design and construction in recent times is the need for energy conservation. Earlier, secured windows that made important persistent constrained air course or cooling, gave route in mid-ascent structures to operable windows and glass partitions that were colored to mirror the sun's beams. The 1980's saw the beginning of an arrival to progressively old-style ornamentation as that of Philip Johnson’s AT & T Building in New York City (1984).

1.3 Future Skyscrapers

Since the birth of skyscrapers, engineers are continuously looking for materials and methods to make these structures stronger, taller, lighter, and environmentally friendly. As the population keeps on surging in urban areas, more and more buildings are being constructed. There will eventually come a point where engineers will no longer build a taller building. Well, the current tallest building is the Burj Khalifa at a remarkable height of 830 meters (2,722 feet). This building dwarfs everything built before it. In theory, there really isn't a maximum height, however, engineers would need to keep expanding the base to support the weight on the lofty top of the structure. With the existing technology, the tallest structure that could possibly be built is the x-seed building; this building hasn't been built yet, but the blueprints have been completed. This mammoth structure would be 4 kilometers (2.4 miles) tall, which is the same height as Mt Fuji in Japan (CTHUB, 2020).

Chapter 2

The Carbon Impacts of the Skyscrapers

Building construction has a big impact on the environment. The construction and renovation of buildings uses precious natural resources. Dust generation, noise pollution, vegetation removal, and air pollution are some of the most significant effects of construction on the environment. Construction of buildings results in emissions of gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and other waste products that pollute the air contributing to global warming. The energy utilized in the development of homes and the utilization of different structures represents around half of the UK's carbon dioxide discharge. The Climate Change Act 2008 is looking to reduce this rate by at least 80% by 2050. Globally, buildings account for about 35% of resources, 40% of energy use, consume 12% of the world’s drinkable water and produce almost 40% of global carbon emissions (CTBUH, 2020). Skyscrapers have different construction characteristics and methods of heating and ventilation, depending on the age built. The higher the building, the increase in the intensity of electricity and fossil fuel use, and as a result, more carbon is emitted. The structural design of high-rise buildings is more complex than low-rise buildings (Tamošaitienė & Gaudutis, 2013). Consequently, energy use intensity increases as the buildings get taller. About 80-90% of this energy use is associated with operational energy (Ramesh et al., 2010).

2.1 Transportation of building materials

Huge tracks and cranes are needed for the construction of high-rise buildings. As the height increases, so does the number of vehicles needed for the transportation of materials to and from the site upon its completion. These vehicles that are used in transportation use most of the world’s petroleum. This creates air pollution, including nitrous oxides and other harmful gases that contribute to global warming through carbon emission. Energy use and emissions vary largely between different types of vehicles used, and the type of fuel consumed. Noise pollution comes along with such transportation. The transport sector is a major source of Greenhouse Gas emissions in the United States according to Climate and Energy Resources for State, Local, and Tribal Governments (2019). An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation, and in some regions, the proportion is even higher. Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S., accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990. Traffic congestion, automobile-oriented urban sprawl, and other indirect impacts that come along with transport activities are of great concern. These synergetic consequences have an impact on climate change and contribute greatly to global warming.

2.2 Construction equipment on site

Site preparation before a building is constructed involves a lot of activities, that is blasting, test drilling, landfill, leveling, earth-moving, excavating, land drainage, and other site preparation activities. All these activities require construction equipment, which in most cases are vehicles. The actual construction likewise uses a lot of heavy equipment which runs on petrol or diesel. Diesel-powered construction equipment are the main source of GreenHouse gas and emissions during the construction period of a building (Al-Kodmany, K., 2018). Quite a number of other factors also affect the exhaust emissions of construction equipment. These include:

Equipment conditions - The rates of exhaust emissions from construction equipment are mainly determined by engine year of manufacture, engine model, engine size, and horsepower. The engines of newer generations can have reduced emissions and fuel consumption rates. However, the large initial investment and affordability of such equipment slow down the process of replacement of the old construction equipment.

Equipment maintenance - Construction equipment maintenance follows the manufacturer’s manual. Delayed changing of oil, grease, filters, clean-up, and other major maintenance works result in higher consumption of fuel as well as high emissions due to clogged airflow and burning of engine fuel.

Operating conditions - Different construction activities have different work conditions and requirements, influencing the time the equipment takes when working in different load conditions and engine status. Fuel consumption and emissions of equipment increase significantly in tougher working conditions, when working in high altitude areas or when operating in severe environmental conditions such as during winter.

2.3 Production of cement, steel

Cement and steel are important ingredients in the construction industry. CO2 is a by-product of the chemical conversion process of these products. The production of clinker, a key component of cement, accounts for most of the Co2 in cement production. In 2016, world cement production generated around 2.2 billion tonnes of CO2 - equivalent to 8% of the global total. More than half of that came from the calcination process. Along with thermal burning, 90% of the area's outflows could be ascribed to the creation of the clinker. On the other hand, the steel industry generates between 7% and 9% of direct emissions from the global use of fossil fuel due to the coke-based iron ore reduction process. Blast furnaces produce huge amounts of carbon dioxide as a by-product of carbon reduction. Therefore, the average intensity for the steel and cement industry is significantly high in carbon emissions (Begeç and Hamidabad, 2015).

2.4 Day-to-day energy use

Statistically, buildings contribute to 40% of the total energy use in the world and 70% of electricity use. A skyscraper consumes higher amounts of energy due to its large volume compared to low-rise development. High energy consumption is brought about by the use of elevators, lighting, heating, cooling, among other factors that are necessary to keep the building operational and at the necessary optimum levels.

2.4.1 Lighting

Traditional and glass skyscrapers consume a lot of energy. Their vast glass surfaces, electric lighting everywhere, overly generous use of air conditioning and heating, and elevators by the dozen, they nearly appear to be intended to consume energy to the fullest while radiating plentiful amounts of ozone-depleting substances. One study revealed that the electricity used per square meter of floor area in skyscrapers was nearly two and a half times greater in 20 or more story buildings than that with 6 stories or less (Helena et al., 2013).

2.4.2 Heating and cooling

Buildings absorb excess heat gains in the summer months and lose a lot of heat during the winter periods. Therefore, the balance of temperatures is needed to be maintained in skyscrapers. The use of modern equipment to maintain these optimum levels consumes a lot of energy, meanwhile emitting gases to the environment (Helena et al., 2013).

Chapter 3

Management of Energy Consumption of Skyscrapers

The construction of high-rise buildings consumes a lot of energy. This not only affects the utility bill but also has a great impact on the environment. Energy consumption in skyscrapers can be improved by:

Measuring the energy consumption of the building. This helps greatly in mapping out where to make the greatest improvements in energy efficiency. Focusing on insulation. Newly constructed skyscrapers should be built with high-performance insulation and non-traditional walls systems that offer additional insulation. The outside envelope of the high-rise building should be designed to lower heating and cooling needs. Purchase of certified equipment. Buying high-performance, energy-efficient systems, and equipment saves a lot of costs. Energy Star certified products tend to be in the top 15 to 30% of their class for energy performance. An Energy Star certified computer, for example, will use 30% to 65% less energy than a typical non-certified model, depending on its use. These products evolve quickly, so it's important to stay informed about new developments (Sewalk et al., 2016). Use of LED lights. Upgrading to LED lighting can help reduce energy use by 75% compared to incandescent lighting. Sensors can also be installed in infrequently used spaces such as conference rooms and restrooms to cut down on energy use (Sewalk et al., 2016). Upgrading to LEED. Many buildings in Canada and around the world are now being built or retrofitted to the green standard known as LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design). It aims to improve the sustainability of buildings in areas such as site planning, water efficiency, energy use, materials selection, indoor air quality, and configuration highlights. LEED structures commonly cost about 2% more to construct than traditional structures. However, improved functionality, water effectiveness, and a higher inhabitants rate imply that this extra expense is normally recovered in only a couple of years. Renewable energy sources such as solar collectors, heat pumps, wind power, biotechnology among other energy sources should be put in place in the construction of skyscrapers and other high-rise buildings for efficient energy use (Sewalk et al., 2016).

3.1 Wooden Skyscrapers

Wooden skyscrapers are seen as an effective solution to the issues of urbanization. They take little time to build and also have a smaller carbon footprint than skyscrapers made of concrete and steel. In the next 30 years, the world’s population is predicted to increase to about 10 billion people and two-thirds of the world's inhabitants will live in cities. Space will be greatly scarce. Skyscrapers offer a solution. But cement and steel, the materials as of now used to construct highrise structures, have a huge carbon impression. An answer may lie in this characteristic material that has been utilized for centuries. From the beginning of time structures have been made of wood. But it has one significant downside. It is a source of fuel. Fire decimated enormous regions of a portion of the world's urban communities (Ali, 2010). By the mid 20th century, modern steelmaking had penetrated the market. Steel is strong and can be made into any shape to support cement. It permitted contractors to build higher than before. A few planners are proposing the return to wood since cement and steel are expensive to deliver and overwhelming to ship. Wood can be developed reasonably and it's lighter than concrete. What's more, as trees develop, they retain carbon dioxide from the air, securing it in the wood. One study indicated that utilizing wood to develop a 125-meter elevated structure could decrease a structure's carbon impression by up to 75%. Standard lumber isn't flexible like steel or concrete and isn't sufficiently able to assemble high. Be that as it may, engineers have thought of an answer. It's called Cross Laminated Timber, or CLT. CLT is light and it's practically identical in solidarity to cement and steel. London planners Waugh Thistleton are as of now structuring structures with this new sort of wood. Andrew and his associates planned Britain's first skyscraper wooden condo square and have as of late finished the world's biggest lumber based structure (Lotfabadi, 2014). Behind these blocks is a lumber center, produced using in excess of 2000 trees, sourced from manageable backwoods. This London practice isn't the only one in upholding the utilization of CLT. Ambitious wooden tall structures are likewise being built in Scandinavia, central Europe, and North America. Nonetheless, no one has utilized CLT to work past 55 meters. Michael Ramage's examination place in Cambridge, working with another London practice, has proposed an idea plan of a 300-meter tower, that could be based on one of London's most notable solid structures, the Barbican. The expense of building wooden high rises is largely unknown, yet those expenses could be diminished by pre-creating huge areas of structures in processing plants. City-inhabitants should be convinced that CLT doesn't burn like customary wood. As an alluring, natural material, wood is as of now well known for use in low structures. On the off chance that planners approve, it could ascend higher than ever. Lessening energy use in structures is one of the most significant approaches to decrease human's general ecological effect.

Chapter 4

Sustainable Skyscrapers and Urban Life

In constructing skyscrapers, it is imperative to adhere to sustainability standards so as to reduce the carbon impact of skyscrapers. Sustainable construction is that which i) uses renewable and recyclable resources, ii) reduces energy use and wastage, iii) creates a healthy environment for the occupants, and iv) protects the natural environment. The UN proposed 17 interconnected sustainable goals, meant to be achieved by 2030. The following relates to construction and should be adopted in the building of skyscrapers: i) make sure people of all ages are healthy, ii) providing clean, accessible water for all, iii) providing clean and affordable energy for all, iv) creating suitable conditions that improve the quality of jobs and the workplace, v) promoting infrastructural development, vi) promoting responsible consumption and production, vii) preventing negative climate change, and viii) sustainably manage forests and forest resources, reduce desertification, stop land degradation and loss of flora and fauna (Al-Kodmany, 2018). To achieve sustainability in skyscraper construction, the World Green Building Council suggests the adoption of green building practices. These are discussed below:

4.1 Use locally sourced construction materials

As earlier indicated, the transportation of construction materials from far away quarries to the site is one of the major factors that increase the carbon footprint of skyscrapers. Locally sourced construction materials have been shown to improve the sustainability credentials of buildings. Another equally used term for locally sourced materials is regional materials. These are ideally produced within a given radius from the project site. For instance, LEED specifies this radius to 500 miles. This can be roughly interpreted to mean within the country, or from surrounding states, but a number of scholars disagree with this, citing it as too large a distance. Nonetheless, the overall advantage of using locally sourced materials is cutting down on transportation fuel, which results in less greenhouse gas emissions. In another dimension, the use of regional materials is very beneficial to the local economy, which is one of the sustainability aspects of development (Mbassegue et al., 2017).

4.2 Adopt wind-resistant design

The higher a skyscraper goes, the better it needs to be wind-resistant so as to be able to stand against the strong winds characteristic of such heights. Making such high buildings stable uses a lot of resources, which means a higher carbon footprint. The lateral force of the wind on tall buildings can cause considerable damage, and in worst scenarios displace the upper floors of the building. To reduce the carbon impact, skyscrapers need to be more wind-resistant in their design. One way to do this is by using a curved spine that directs wind around the building rather than hitting directly on the building. This is evidenced in the design of the 632-meter tall Shanghai Tower. Ideally, skyscrapers should not be designed to catch the wind. A good design allows wind to flow around the building without imparting lots of force on the windward face of the building. Wide bases and narrow tops can effectively prevent the generation of powerful vortices around buildings (Mendis, 2013).

4.3 Adopting green architecture

Skyscrapers can have green vegetation on the face of the structure. Such vegetation will be home to birds and other animals, and this has its positive effects on the ecosystem. The planted vegetation also directly sucks up CO2 released from within the building as the leaves carry out photosynthesis. In return, they release oxygen into the air, just like it happens in forests. Covering buildings with green vegetation also reduces other air pollutants like soot and dust. Recent research by Arup showed that air pollutants between two buildings covered with green plants are reduced by up to 20 percent. Additionally, green buildings help cool down the cities which are usually heated up through radiation from walls, roads, and paved surfaces. During summer, a building whose roof is covered with plants will have an internal temperature that is close to the normal room temperature. Green plants on the building facade also have a reduction effect on the continuous noise produced by traffic. The plants are also able to soak up water and thus reduce drainage problems around buildings. Erosion is also reduced by the plant leaves slowing down the fall of raindrops. Working in an office surrounded with greens is also psychologically uplifting to the workers as is the case when someone is in nature. It has been shown to reduce overall stress by 60%, anxiety by 37%, fatigue by 38%, headaches by 20%, and noise by 50% (Al-Kodmany, 2018).

4.4 Transforming skyscrapers into energy sources

Sustainability includes the conservation of energy and the use of renewable energy sources. Skyscrapers have great potential for use as a source of renewable energy. By the fact that they rise up to heights above many other structures in the vicinity, the exposure to fast powerful winds justifies the installation of wind turbines to the building facade. This is both straightforward and inexpensive as the builders will make use of the wind without the need for full-size standard towers. A good example of this is seen in the 240-meter tall Bahrain World Trade Centre. The building can additionally be designed to direct the wind to the wind turbines for the generation of even more energy. Additionally, integrating wind turbines into buildings generates electricity at the point where it is needed, and therefore removes the need for transmission, which is a costly affair as well as resource-intensive. Wind turbines on buildings also have a distinct aesthetic value. However, a number of scholars discourage the use of wind turbines on buildings for two basic reasons: i) wind flow around tall buildings is majorly turbulent, but wind turbines perform best when the wind flow is laminar, ii) wind turbines generate a lot of noise and vibration which poses yet another problem to the occupants of the building (Al-Kodmany, 2018).

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4.5 Heating and Cooling

One of the major energy uses in skyscrapers is keeping the indoor temperatures comfortable for the occupants. In summer, the exposure of the building facade to direct insolation from the sun quickly heats up the interiors to a point the occupants experience great discomfort. Using normal air conditioners is possible, but this has a great carbon footprint. One green approach is to adopt a high-performance facade that significantly reduces heat penetration into the building, while at the same time allowing sufficient natural light to get into the buildings. A good example of a skyscraper that has used this technology is the Ping An International Finance Center in China. Additionally, vertical fins and overhangs can be used on the building exterior to provide adequate shading such that the sun’s rays do not fall directly onto the windows for the better part of the day. Another strategy is to make use of solar power for heating. Solar is a renewable source of energy that has a low carbon impact on the environment. Alternatively, skyscrapers can make use of combined heat and power systems and air source heat pumps which are some of the latest low carbon technologies. Biomass can be considered in cases where the skyscraper is physically accessible and there is enough space for the generation and use of biomass (Begeç and Hamidabad, 2015.

4.6 Lighting

The very first consideration in lowering carbon footprint in regards to lighting is maximizing the use of natural light within the building. Skyscrapers have the advantage that they rise above most of the obstacles that can block the light entering into buildings. However, the design needs to allow adequate light into the building, without leading to overheating of the building. One approach for improving daylighting is the use of skylights for open spaces in buildings. Windows can be made taller but strategically positioned to reduce potential glare. Another approach is to use the shallow-plan design which allows natural light to enter all rooms and hallways. On top of that, lighting can be installed directly above workspaces as opposed to lighting up the whole room. Clever use of mirrors around the building fabric can direct sufficient sunlight to areas it would normally not reach. Research into the use of optical fibers and light ducts for further spreading light into the building is also underway and will be a great breakthrough in the design of skyscrapers. Designers should finally consider using energy-efficient lighting, particularly the LEDs, which have been shown to be able to reduce electricity use by 6%, instead of the conventional halogen bulbs (Generalova and Generalov, 2018).

Chapter 5

Conclusion

Taking all things into account, sustainability in the construction industry is a very critical component of the overall sustainable development goals. About 90% of our time is spent indoors, and therefore the condition of a building has a huge impact on the well-being of the occupants. A comfortable building in terms of temperature, air quality, and lighting is a major step to leading a healthy life. In the event that a building is not naturally designed to be comfortable, humans will use every means to achieve the desired comfort. If a building is cold, man will attempt to heat up the building. If a building is hot, humans will try to cool down the building. If a building is dark, man will attempt to light up the building. All these amounts to energy and that is part of the reason why buildings have such a high carbon impact. Population pressure and scarcity of land have led investors to resort to building skyscrapers. Constructing such tall structures has its fair share of disadvantages, especially the carbon impact that is brought about by transportation of construction materials to the site, use of heavy diesel-powered construction equipment, manufacture of raw materials used for the construction, heating, lighting and cooling the building. However, given the advantages of skyscrapers, one way out is to build them in a sustainable manner that lowers their associated carbon footprint. Such techniques are known as green building and they include using locally sourced raw construction materials, designing skyscrapers to reduce the wind load, using skyscrapers for the generation of electricity through wind turbines, using low carbon heating, cooling, and lighting systems.

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