How concepts from gender studies help understand gender-based violence
Violence against women takes different forms with the most predominant forms of violence being rape, battering, sexual abuse, and domestic violence. For a long time, much of this violence was considered to be a part of the private and family matters and not something that law or public law had to respond to. This approach to gender-based violence was changed to a great extent by the feminist theory and perspectives that introduced key ideas into the discourse on gender-based violence and guided the shifting of the discourse from a private and family-based perspective to a public issue. The feminist perspective has been critical to understanding gender-based violence, particularly the violence that women experience within the confines of their homes. In this essay, the discussion will centre on how concepts from gender studies have helped to inform our understanding on gender-based violence. The principal concept introduced by feminist theory to explain the reasons for gender-based violence is that of patriarchy. Other contributions include a focus on social factors as well as an intersectional approach to understanding how women of colour may experience violence differently from white women. This essay discusses the important concepts of patriarchy and intersectionality that have been developed within gender studies and explores how these concepts add to the understanding of gender-based violence.
Gender based violence can manifest in different forms like domestic violence, sexual harassment, sexual violence and rape. As such, gender based violence is a broad term and it includes different forms of violence that are perpetrated against women (Montesanti, 2015). Gender based violence as a term itself owes its conceptualisation to feminist and gender studies where the theorists have emphasised on the need to shift focus from women as “victims of violence to gender and the unequal power relationships between women and men that are created and maintained through gender stereotypes” (Montesanti, 2015, p?). A gender perspective on violence against women emphasises on the similar and different ways in which violence is experienced by women and men (Montesanti, 2015). Violence of the nature of domestic violence and sexual abuse is a part of such gendered violence because even though men too may experience such violence, women are by far the most victimised for such violence (Montesanti, 2015). For this purpose, gender based studies and feminist theories have played a very important role in explaining how women experience specific kinds of violence that is peculiarly related to their gender experience. Thus, gender studies help to understand these exposures to violence by women by emphasising on the status and position of women in an unequal society and the ways in which such violence manifests relationships of control and dominance by men over women within patriarchal societal and familial structures.
One of the key contributions of feminist thought to understanding gender based violence is the notion of how patriarchal structures in the society lead to the engendering of violent cultures against women. Patriarchy is defined as a social condition that depicts the “power of the fathers” (Kesselman, et al, 2008, p. 10). Radical feminism movement is based on the use of patriarchy as the underlying feature of the society which is also responsible for the status and condition of women because patriarchy is a social condition that is “the grand narrative that influences us all, often invisibly” (Dickerson, 2013, p. 102). Radical feminists’ concept of patriarchy is an important contribution to the development of understanding on gender-based violence (Dickerson, 2013). The principal explanation of gender-based violence particularly in the family domain if informed by this understanding of the patriarchal social structure and this is therefore, the dominant perspective on explaining domestic violence (Winstock, 2013). Rape also has been explained in feminist theory from the perspective of the control that is exercised by men over women and their bodies (Brownmiller, 1975). Rape was explained by Brownmiller (1975) as the ultimate means of control over women and something that allows men to keep women in fear, saying that through rape “all men keep all women in a state of fear” (p. 5). Although, the statement may seem excessive, it is apt in conceptualising the state of fear that women may have about rape as a social condition that may afflict them if they let their guard down. Therefore, the use of patriarchy and control to explain gender-based violence is applicable to different kinds of violent acts that women may experience.
Feminist perspective was the first major theoretical movement to explain the use of power and control against women and marginalisation of women in patriarchal structures as one of the leading causes for incidence of violence against women especially within the confines of their homes (Carter, 2015). Feminist theorists in the 1960s believed that the problem of gender based violence needs to be explored from the angle of how patriarchal systems lead to more power and control with the male members of the family and in the broader society, and how this affects the position of women in the home and outside and also exposes her to more violence (Carter, 2015). Patriarchy genders control and violence against women is the result of misuse of control by male partners against female (McPhail, et al, 2007). Such misuse of control may even be socially accepted because patriarchy affects the social system and the position of woman in the home and outside of it (Price, et al, 2017). Patriarchy leads to normalisation of male oppression of women, and this is the principal cause of gender-based violence in society (Price, et al, 2017).
The Second Wave feminists of the period between 1960s to 1980s led to the development of a radical feminism, which was focussed on gender based inequalities and inequities that are prevalent in the social, cultural and political contexts (Carrington, 2002). Radical feminists claimed that it was the structural oppression of women that leads to gender based violence (Carrington, 2002). Seen from this angle, the radical feminist theories are based on the structural forms of oppression of women in society and tend to see gender issues, including gender-based violence from this perspective of patriarchy and control over women. An important contribution of the radical feminism theory is that it has helped to bring more focus on the need to bring gender based violence into the public domain, so that appropriate responses in the criminal law can be drafted for the response to gender based violence; this is particularly relevant to domestic violence, which for the longest time remained in the private domain with little to no response to such violence in the criminal law (Houston, 2014). The feminist movement is responsible for bringing attention to domestic violence not as a private crime but as a public crime by arguing that this kind of violence is not just a private relationship issue but a public law issue that needs appropriate responses (Houston, 2014).
Radical feminism is also criticised for its tendency to see only women as victims of domestic violence whereas statistics show that even men are victimised by domestic violence. Another problem with the radical approach is that it is not able to explain violence in relationships that are not heterosexual, thereby not being able to explain violence in homosexual and lesbian relationships where the victims may not always be women and the perpetrators may not always be men. Ignoring or neglecting to write on these kinds of gender-based violence, radical feminists maintain that women are the victims of domestic violence as they based their argument on the presence of structural and systemic gender inequality and patriarchy (George, et al, 2014). This does not mean that feminist theory or gender-based studies are not responding to the issue of gender-based violence in homosexual and lesbian relationships; this is the problem of radical feminist theory and not feminist theory in general. One of the key contributions to feminist theory in gender-based violence going beyond heterosexual relationships is in the post-modern feminist theory.
Post modern feminists are different from radical feminists and have provided a wider worldview to understand gender-based violence. Postmodern feminists have contributed to the understanding on gender based violence by explaining the social and cultural construction of masculinities and femininities and how these constructions contribute to gender based violence (Bagshaw, et al, 2000). This approach is significantly different from a radical feminist approach although both approaches would come within the domain of feminism. Whereas the radical feminist approach explains how patriarchy driven cultures and structures contribute to the incidence of gender based violence. On the other hand, post modernism takes a more intersectional approach to gender-based violence (Bagshaw, et al, 2000). It is interesting that within the domain of feminist theory, there has been a development of a post-modern approach which does not merely focus on gender bias as a reason for gender-based violence within families.
Another contribution of feminist thought is the explanation of gender-based violence from the perspective of an ‘intersectional approach (George, et al, 2014). The third wave feminists have been credited for developing this intersectional approach to understanding issues like gender-based violence, which is focussed not just on the explanation of the violence against women but also on the premise of social justice. Interestingly, the third wave feminists have rejected patriarchy as the primary cause of gender-based violence, and rather argue that violence can be due to a variety of explanations (George, et al, 2014). Third wave feminism takes a more nuanced approach to violence. The intersectional approach to understanding gender based violence has been used by diverse groups of feminist writers, and it reflects on the diversity in the society that is useful for understanding how intersections between gender, race and class, can be used to explain the proliferation of violence against women in the society (Collins, 2000). Intersectional approach has also been used to explain violence in the context of sexual orientation and homosexual relationships (Renzetti, 1997). Feminist theory is useful in explaining how diverse systems of oppression exist in society and gender based violence cannot be explained only on the basis of gender; gender based violence cannot be generalised om the basis of how a group of women experience violence (Collins, 2000).
Crenshaw (1991) has provided much insight into the intersectionality of gender, race and class and how this leads to perpetration of gender-based violence by also pointing out how the feminist work on patriarchy and gender relations have helped explain the ways in which violence against women is perpetrated. She writes:
Drawing from the strength of shared experience, women have recognized that the political demands of millions speak more powerfully than the pleas of a few isolated voices. This politicization in turn has transformed the way we understand violence against women. For example, battering and rape, once seen as private (family matters) and aberrational (errant sexual aggression), are now largely recognized as part of a broad-scale system of domination that affects women as a class (Crenshaw, 1991, p. 1241).
Yet another concept developed within the domain of feminist theory and which has contributed to the development of understanding on the gender based violence is the socialist approach which explores the broader social factors that engender violent behaviour against women; these social factors may be related to gender-based and class-based inequalities. Social approach also considers the central notion of patriarchy to be the chief cause of gender-based violence and argues that for the elimination of such violence it is important to displace patriarchy in the society. This would end the control and power exerted by men over women and therefore lead to reduction of gender-based violence which is fed by the dominant position of men in society.
Although, the predominant view on gender-based violence is informed by patriarchy, the intersectional approach to understanding gender-based violence is also important as third wave feminists have explained. Radical feminism may be unable to explain the variety of ways in which violence may be gendered against women, but its contribution to understanding gender-based violence cannot be overstated. Radical feminism theory is important for its ability to explain how women are generally the most victimised by violence on the basis of patriarchal structures that are prevalent in the societies (Carrington, 2002). This led to the development of a feminist approach in criminology as well which led the criminologists to explore gender-based violence as a social problem engendered by patriarchal structures (Groves, et al, 2013). By focussing on victimisation of women as a primary fact of gender-based violence, radical feminists were able to explain gender-based violence (McPhail, et al, 2007). This led to “shift in domestic violence response from private to public is a feminist accomplishment” (Houston, 2014, p. 219).
The relevance of the patriarchal approach to engendering of violence against women can also be understood in the context of honour killings, which disproportionately affect women of minorities. The patriarchal structures within societies can be relevant to understanding how women form the majority of victims of honour killing in the UK. Honour killing is violence perpetrated by members of the victim’s family or even the wider community and it is prevalent amongst the Christian, Muslim, Hindu, Sikh and Jewish communities in the UK particularly those belonging to Asian and African communities (The House of Commons, 2009, p. 13). Patriarchal structures have been said to perpetuate conditions in which honour killings take place because the idea of honour is also related to violation of gender-role expectations by the victim that beings’ shame to the family or community (Gill, 2014). Women in South Asian communities have been victimised by honour based violence with perpetrators usually being brothers, fathers, and cousins (Gill, 2014). Such kind of violence can be explained on the basis of a patriarchal approach because there is an element of control and power that is being exercised by the male members of the family over the female. An intersectional approach can also be used to understand how the intersectionality between race and gender can affect the status of women in society and within the family and how this can be one of the reasons why women are more likely to be victimised.
Another example of how patriarchy continues to inform our understanding of gender-based violence can be seen in the context of violence against women in war time (Zarkov, 2006). Sexual violence against women has been identified as a war time strategy where women are victimised by enemy forces and classical or liberal feminist thought is credited for bringing the relationship between gender, war and women to the fore (Zarkov, 2006). However, Zarkov (2006) also points to the relevance of intersectionality for understanding social reactions to women’s victimisation by rape and sexual violence, with culture and nationality playing a role in defining such victimisation. For instance, in Indian partition many women suffered sexual violence and many others were killed by their own families to avoid this horror; those who are remembered in martyrdom literature are often those women who were killed to avoid rape while there is rarely any mention of those women who were raped (Zarkov, 2006). Therefore, intersectionality of culture and gender may act on the way victimisation of women itself is defined and for this feminist literature’s conceptualisation of intersectionality and gender victimhood is important to understand sexual violence against women in specific cultural locales.
To conclude, gender studies have played a pivotal role in developing a better understanding about gender-based violence. Gender studies are important for their recognition and emphasis on womanhood as a reason for victimisation in a structurally patriarchal society. By identifying patriarchal structures as responsible for gendering and perpetuating violence against women, feminists were able to draw attention to the social issues that led to the increased victimisation of women in societies. Feminists did not stop at this point however. They also contributed to better understanding of gender-based violence by explaining factors other than patriarchy, through intersectional discourse on what leads to violence against women. This brought more attention to issues like culture, class, race and sexual orientation for understanding the nature of gender-based violence in different contexts. Therefore, a very important contribution of feminist and gender-based studies to the understanding of gender-based violence is the concept of intersectionality which was proposed initially in the west to differentiate between the experiences of violence of white women and women of colour. The contribution of gender studies also includes the conceptualisation of gender-based violence in public contexts by shifting it away from private domain. By showing that violence against women is attributed to structural and systemic causes, radical feminists were able to create a greater advocacy for calling for reforms in laws for addressing violence against women. In all this, gender studies have been successful in bringing more understanding to the reasons why women in different circumstances are exposed to violence. Importantly, the concepts developed by gender studies are now also being used to explore and understand the victimisation of women in homosexual relationships and victimisation of men in both heterosexual and homosexual relationships. This is made possible by the way third wave feminists have evolved the concepts of liberal and radical feminism to gain more insight into gender-based violence beyond the patriarchy discourse.
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